DE MONTFORT'S THESIS ON PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS SUPPORT IN SOUTH AFRICA

The primary purpose of the United Nations (UN) is to maintain international peace and security (UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations, 1995:3), and to end the “scourge of war” (Charter of the UN: 1945). According to Deen (2006:5) UN peacekeeping operations have become an indispensable weapon in the arsenal of the international community and there is growing confidence in UN peacekeeping as a means to help build stability after conflict.
Throughout the duration of the Cold War, UN peace support operations (PSO) were constrained by superpower rivalry and remained relatively small. Despite more than 80 wars fought world wide (James, 1990), only 13 UN peacekeeping and observer missions were conducted between 1948 and 1988 (Roberts, 1996). After the Cold War, the number of UN peacekeeping or observer forces increased and, at the end of 1994, these missions were staffed by 77,783 civilian (Boutros-Ghali, 1996:4) and military personnel from over 82 different nations, serving on 19 missions (Liu, 1999:8). Now in 2006 the UN has recorded a historic high of 80, 976 soldiers and 15,000 civilian peacekeepers from 112 countries and is set to total 140,000 by 2007 (Deen, 2006:5).
The current trends of political, social, and economic globalisation has resulted in an increase in the number of conflicts, aggravated by instability, social and economic injustice, and political competition (Hårleman, 2003: 8).
The UN is confronted with a significant change in the nature of conflict. Instead of wars in which two nations with professional armies face each other, today’s conflict is typically an internal struggle with irregular forces, light weapons and guerrilla tactics. There are not merely two opposing forces, but include rival warlords, factional leaders, para-military forces and even organised criminal groups (Standard Generic Training Module, 2003: 3-4).
These so-called 'third generation' operations are triggered by the resurgence of suppressed and very old animosity. Conflicts are characterised by abuses of human rights. Moreover, consent may be absent, since authority has collapsed and is meaningless because of a large number of groups claiming power. Agreements are non-existent or worthless and international law and conventions are openly disobeyed (Malan 1996:3).
In this environment, UN peacekeeping has become increasingly complex and multi-dimensional, requiring a variety of civilian, police and military actors (Higate, 2004:3). It is therefore essential that training is available to familiarize personnel with established doctrine. Such training must be standard, doctrinally correct, and easily delivered.
1.2 RATIONALE FOR THE RESEARCH
The security of Africa has deteriorated since 1989, when the Cold War ended. Insurgents often gain power and some states involve themselves militarily in their neighbour’s affairs. Diminished foreign interest, a change in the nature of African conflicts and personal dictatorial rule in many African states have been the main causes of deterioration. Many African wars are rooted in ethnic quarrel (Kruys, 2004:35).
In addition, the end of the Cold War reduced the military-strategic importance of Africa in world politics and increased claims for democracy encouraged civil conflict in various African nations.
A high proportion of youth, rapid urban growth, low levels of cropland and excessive adult mortality, mostly due to high HIV and AIDS prevalence, are further factors increasing risks levels for civil conflict (Cincotta, Engelman and Anastasion, 2003:13).
Africa has emerged as a dangerous and challenging environment for the conduct of contemporary peace operations (Potgieter, 1996:1). The challenges and constraints of peacekeeping in African countries such as Somalia and Rwanda led to unwillingness by the major powers to become involved in peacekeeping efforts in Africa (Neethling, 1999:22-23). At the start of the 21st century Africa is unstable and rent by wars leading to famine, brutality, disease and failing economies (Kruys, 2004;15). There exists no doubt that Africa is brimming with poverty and underdevelopment. Africa has the lowest per capita income in the world (Daniels, 2005:4).
This state of affairs led to calls made by President Thabo Mbeki for an Africa-renaissance that amounts to Africans accepting responsibility for their own destiny (Steyn, 1997:12) and accountability for conflict prevention and resolution on the continent through co-operation at regional and sub-regional level (Thiart, 1997:12). Nelson Mandela put forward the national value: “South Africa cannot escape its African destiny” (Mandela, 1993).

Corresponding to calls for a renaissance the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) is arguable the most important socio-economic plan ever to emerge from Africa - an ‘African solution to African problems.’ The programme links aid to good governance and set preconditions for its success to include peace and security (Ramsbotham, Bah and Calder, 2005:2).
If NEPAD is to be viable, the role of African militaries will have to be acknowledged and defined (Engelbrecht, 2002:22). In reaction, the African Union (AU) proposed the establishment of an African Standby Force (ASF) and the G8 countries have pledged assistance to African peacekeeping efforts as part of their Africa action plan to support NEPAD (Fabricius, 2003:11).
South Africa has declared itself willing to contribute to PSO under the auspices of the UN, the AU and Southern African development Community (SADC) (Kent and Malan: 2003:1). The White Paper on Defence (1996:20) acknowledges the expectation for South Africa to participate in PSO. The Defence Review (1998:36) stipulates that the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) may become involved in PSO as part of a multinational peace force. The White Paper on Participation in International Peacekeeping Operations (1998:2) states that South Africa’s potential contributions may include the voluntary services of a diverse group of civilians.
In January 2001, President Thabo Mbeki told the world economic forum at Davos that the key priority for Africa was creating peace, security, stability, and democratic governance, as without which it would be impossible to engage in meaningful economic activity. South African Defence Minister Mosiuoa Lekota concurs that there will be no development without security (Heitman, 2005b:21). In an interview with Helmoed-Römer Heitman (2005a:34) the Chief of the South African (SA) Army, Lt Gen Solly Shoke, said, “It’s our duty to participate in PSOs.”
Judging from the statements the Republic of South Africa (RSA) will remain involved in PSO in Africa for political, economic and moral reasons to help resolve conflicts on the continent, since ignoring them could mean instability that would impinge on South Africa economically and otherwise. Conflict, instability and a lack of security in Africa have been the key factors both in frightening off investment and in making self-funded economic development difficult (Morris, 2003:12).
The core of PSO in Africa does no longer merely entail the deployment of armed forces, but the focus is on shifting towards a more integrated approach including reconstruction, development, stability, civilian involvement and humanitarian aspects (International Quality and Productivity Centre: 2006).
Since 2000, SANDF soldiers have been deploying on the continent for peacekeeping missions (Tsedu, 2002:6). Jankielsohn (2003:21), a member of parliament, urges government to acknowledge that the SANDF has a limited capacity to deploy troops in PSO over long periods. It has neither the logistical nor the personnel capacity to do so. The SANDF has health problems arising from a 21% HIV/AIDS infection rate (Katzenellenbogen, 2004:3). According to Boshoff (Financial Mail, 2004:25) SANDF resources have stretched to the limit by its peacekeeping obligations, prompting a review of current policy.

An index published in the International Security Review is of the opinion that South Africa’s military potency is slipping (Trench, 1998:15). According to Heitman (2003:12), an army lives and dies literally by its training. Soldiers, units and formations must train frequently, regularly and thoroughly for an army to be effective. Any slippage in the training programme will eventually result in casualties.
Linking to this, one of the areas of greatest concern in South Africa is the extremely low level of education of the majority of the population (Jerling, 1999:12). More than 75% of the South African labour force is functionally illiterate in the sense that they do not have the skills that are required to perform most job tasks effectively and efficiently (Ernst, 2000:1). According to Harrison (1989:12), education directly and indirectly affects the development of knowledge and skills. Invariably, only people who are educated, trained and developed can be productive and contribute significantly (Erasmus and van Dyk, 1999: 15).
In an environment of rapid change, Education, Training and Development (ETD), has become the driving force for meeting the demand for skilled workers to manage the new social and economic challenges (Van Dyk, Nel, Loedolff and Haasbroek, 2001:5). Van der Westhuizen (1998:34) agrees by stating that countries and organisations will only be able to cope with a fast changing world if they adopt an innovative approach to ETD.
Allen (1998:2) says that training is fundamental in becoming more productive. As a result, to succeed the SANDF, other government and non-government organisations (NGOs) involved in PSO have no other alternative but to properly educate, train and develop its people (SA White Paper on Defence, 1996:10).
By using ETD as force multiplier, the SANDF will be able to meet future force demands (Van der Westhuizen, 1998:11), and create learning conditions to prepare South Africans to meet the demands of globalisation (Brown and Brown, 1994:3-39).
1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
The awareness of a problem base on the perception that not everything is as it should be (Wolmarans and Eksteen, 1987:8). There is a need for conceptual clarity on principles of doctrine for the conduct of increasingly complex peace operations - especially those where there are parties bent on using violence to derail the peace process.
Programs such as those of the UN Institute for Training and Research Peacekeeping Operations Correspondence Instruction (UNITA POCI) and Co-operative Education are important to help bridge the illiteracy gap. However, it is also important that the African doctrine for PSO not only derive from abroad. African realities should inform military operations (MILOPS) that are inevitably different from the environment that has shaped European and American doctrinal development (Training for Peace, 2004:1).
The researcher knows from experience that, in preparing its forces for peace support missions, the SA Army relies almost exclusively on a core of general-purpose combat training, supplemented by mission-specific training during the pre-conflict phase. The reliance on general-purpose combat training base on the conviction that troops well trained for high-intensity warfare would be well prepared for any scenario falling short of combat, including peacekeeping. It assumes that peacekeeping draws on the same set of skills as conventional warfare, but tests soldiers to a lesser degree and that any necessary training beyond general-purpose combat training is achievable within the relatively short period between the notice of mission and a unit's actual deployment.
Regrettably, this traditional approach to training is not adequate to give military personnel either the full range of skills or the appropriate orientation necessary to meet the diverse and complex challenges presented in African peace support operations. The topics relevant to training for PSO are many and complex and could possibly not be covered adequately in the pre-conflict phase, particularly in cases where that period measure in days. The failure of the formal training plan to provide satisfactorily for these non-combat skills arise primarily from the lack of doctrine recognising the need for such training and the lack of supporting training materials and standards.
According to Malan, (1996:11) doctrinal elasticity and attempts to train soldiers "across the spectrum of conflict from stability operations to war,” must be avoided, for they imply a complex and confusing mix of the use of armed force on the one hand, with concepts such as neutrality, impartiality and the minimum use of necessary force on the other.
Southern Africa simply lacks the foundational capacity to create forces that are ubiquitous and capable of discharging tasks across the spectrum of 'peace operation' roles. A more realistic vision would be the creation of a readily available, multilateral pool of competent peacekeepers at the regional or sub-regional level to prevent the reigniting of conflict and the creation of a separate, effective and rapidly deployable multilateral enforcement formation able to stop conflict before it gets serious.
Van Dyk et al. (2001:175) differentiate between three types of problems: managerial, systems and performance. The absence of models of co-operative education on PSO in Africa at South African tertiary institutions points towards a performance problem. According to Van Niekerk (1991:60) to solve, a performance problem such as the lack of ability to do a certain task is to give members additional knowledge, skills and attributes (KSAs).
For that reason, a much wider array of KSAs is required than is normally covered under general-purpose combat training. Broadening the KSA base through higher education is a means of shaping appropriate attitudes and setting the right expectations to help SA Army members and NGOs adapt to the demands of PSO. Langholtz, de Beer and Mostert (2003:7) acknowledge that direct supervision and field exercises are necessary to instruct hands-on technical skills. Yet, institutions of higher learning can provide co-operative education on PSO that are cognitive or knowledge based. This knowledge could include the UNITAR POCI courses, geo-political and security studies, international perceptions on PSO, international humanitarian law and the law of armed conflict, as well as other knowledge-based topics that peacekeepers need to understand in order to serve effectively on UN or AU missions.
The motivation for the research is evident from the discussion above and because no Institute of Higher Learning in South Africa is currently contributing to the field of PSO in Africa, this proposed Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa could help to change the mindset of the major universities.


1.3.1 RESEARCH STATEMENT
A Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa will satisfy the need for tertiary education, improved knowledge, changed attitudes and assist to solve conflict in Africa.
1.3.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The primary objectives for this research were to:
· Carry out a need analysis in order to determine whether there is a need among SA Army officers in the SANDF for a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa;
· Prepare an instructional design (ISD) report for a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa based on principles of scientific instructional design practice; and
· Draft curriculum content on PSO in accordance with the principles of curriculum design.
1.3.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY
The future continues to hold a high demographic risk of civil conflict in Africa. South Africa is in a state of transition and will remain as such for some time to come. The international community expects South Africa to become more involved in peacekeeping missions.
The SA Army, however, has a limited capacity to deploy troops in PSO over long periods. It has neither the logistical, nor the personnel capacity to do so. The defence budget remains under pressure to such an extent that South African military potency is slipping and will drop further if the lack of political will continues to hamper the effectiveness of the SA Army.
If South Africa wants to play a leading role on an unstable continent, it must have a focused and functional defence force. The expectation is that traditional training methods in the SA Army will not be able to satisfy all the present and future human resource development needs, especially the need for competent peacekeepers.
Within the overall educational philosophy of a combination of distance education and co-operative training, the nature of the proposed project is to fulfil the urgent need to change South African soldiers and other PSO stakeholders into unbiased diplomats.
Peacekeepers must be acquainted with the political, military and socio-cultural dynamics of the crisis area. UNITAR POCI, University of South Africa (UNISA) and the Central University of Technology, Free State (CUT), in collaboration with the SANDF, and institutions such as the ISS could use distance education andragogy to achieve the objectives of peace, security and economic stability in Southern Africa.
The focus of the SA Army from the onset should therefore be one of development in cooperation with other stakeholder organisations. Training peacekeepers via distance education is an inexpensive way for Institutions of Higher Learning to become involved and contribute. This could be a key step to assist in the development of a professional SANDF.

The researcher is of the opinion that a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa will provide training and education for a wide variety of learners, in order to improve their ability to participate in multinational peace support and humanitarian operations.
1.4 GENERAL Research design and methodology
1.4.1 RESEARCH DESIGN
The overall plan followed is a non-experimental design. Based on the four-dimensional framework, it becomes possible to categorise the study as one of an empirical nature using primary and secondary sources, numerical and textual data type with medium control (Mouton, 2001:146).
1.4.2 POPULATION, SAMPLE AND SAMPLING
The study included all officers in the SA Army (population) irrespective of rank, age or gender. In light of the size and complexity of the SANDF, the respondents (target population) selected from various units in the SA Army. A sample of approximately 90 officers randomly drawn from the SA Army reflects as closely as possible the characteristics of the entire population, although the selected sample can hardly ever be a mirror image of the population.
1.4.3 DATA COLLECTION METHOD
A survey determines the need for a higher learning programme and assists to analyse the target group. An instructional design model formed the blueprint for the design of the proposed learning programme and curriculum.
1.4.4 DATA ANALYSIS
The appropriate method for interpreting data will be descriptive statistics as described by SPSS computer software (SPSS, 1999). Data recorded as numerical values enables the analysis of data by statistical means. Measurement took place on an ordinal level in order to rank data in terms of a formulated order. Descriptive frequencies converted to percentages illustrate the levels of agreement.
1.5 OUTLINE OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
Besides this introductory chapter, the report is organised into a further four chapters.
Chapter 2, the literature review, contains the theoretical framework that has informed this research. The review involves the constructs of international peacekeeping, geo-politics and security studies, PSO in Africa, civil-military coordination and UNITAR POCI learning programs. Throughout the review, a theoretical basis for these constructs develop and it culminates in a summary from the material reviewed.
Chapter 3 discusses the methodology that formed the foundation of the research. The research strategy, sampling, measuring instruments, data collection procedure, data analysis and limitations of the study are discussed.
Chapter 4 presents the research results. Chapter 5 presents the conclusion and recommendations of this study. It argues the main findings by drawing together the results from the previous chapters into a programme strategy.