INDUCTION FOR PART TIME LECTURERS (14)

THEME FIVE:GOAL FORMULATION

INTRODUCTION

Although goal formulation is without a doubt an important component of teaching and learning, it is often neglected by lecturers.

Many lecturers approach lecturing with self-confidence and are satisfied that they know exactly what the purpose of the course or class is and where they are headed with the learners. They also want to dive headfirst into the long and full curriculum, course or syllabus waiting for them and for which so little time is available.

Goal formulation is a thought exercise that must take place in advance during the lecturer’s preparations, and which causes frustration because lecturing is suddenly no longer quite so simple. Doubt often surfaces as to whether everything will be “covered” and whether the right goal has indeed been selected.

The value of goal formulation for lecturing is also not always immediately visible or measurable. When teaching is successful, it is often ascribed to a “born” lecturer or more often “brilliant” students.

If lecturing fails, the cause may often lie with a weak beginning, especially due to a lack of goal formulation at the different levels of lecturing.

UNIT ONE:TYPES OF GOALS:

1. Terminology

Several different terms are used when considering the purpose of lecturing and learning. The following are a few of the English terms used: purpose, aims, ends, goals, outcomes. For discussion purposes, all these different terms can be simplified into general and specific aims and specific outcomes. General and specific aims imply “the broad formative things or ideals that the university, the department or the program/course wishes to achieve with students”. These are remote and long-term ideals:

• The purpose of degree X is to guide students in the basic principles of the science in order to contribute to their ability to analyse, synthesise, reason, judge, define, plan and methodise (Human, 1999) .

• In undergraduate education, students must be equipped to enter the non-academic (including professional) world from an integrated reality with basic knowledge, supplemented with applied knowledge and/or supplementary skills.
• To create among students the realisation of the ethical implications involved in the study of humans in general, and to bring home to the mentally ill.

Because these general and specific aims usually lack sufficient detail to serve as guidelines for lecturing in the classroom and even the course, specific objectives are used to develop or derive guidelines. The development of specific objectives from the general is known as goal formulation.

With regard to the particulars of terms of goal formulation, Human, 1999, differentiated between different levels. For example, he writes of a goal formulation process. Ultimate goals must be set, intermediate goals must be derived, and eventually proximate goals must be set so that specific objectives can be planned for classroom events. The first level, namely general goals, would guide curriculum development within a university. From these, in turn, proximate goals are formulated to serve as guidelines for the planning of divisions’ or departments’ individual courses, study units or themes (departmental, course and unit, or theme outcomes). From these, lecture outcomes are derived, which guide the planning of the lecturing during each class (see Diagram 1). Specific outcomes refer to the specific activities during each lecture. Diagram 1 also clearly shows that one starts with general outcomes and that proximate goals are derived from these. Specific outcomes for the class are, in turn, derived from these proximate goals. This process ensures that one goes to work in an effective (doing the right things) and efficient (doing things right) manner. If outcomes are not justified in proximate goals, and proximate goals are not justified in general outcomes, overlapping in lecturing occurs and/or important learning material is omitted.
(Bitzer and Venter,2002).

2. The relation between types of outcomes and specific outcomes

General lecturing outcomes are a starting point. These serve as the ideal, something to be pursued, and indicate the purpose of education at a university. Within their directive function, general outcomes can naturally not be separated from the founding values of the university, for instance a scientific approach, a critical attitude, the pursuit of knowledge and its order.

3. Specific outcomes (learning objectives)

The formulation of specific outcomes must be more learner and achievement oriented; it must be a statement that describes as precisely as possible the end result that is to be achieved with the students. Any specific outcome is to be expressed in terms of the behavioural or attitude changes that the lecturer hopes to bring about in his students. The only way in which a lecturer can determine the success achieved with a specific outcomes is by measuring or observing the actions of the learners (Cf. Mahlomoholo, 2005).

An outcome must normally meet three basic requirements or features to ensure that learners are successful in their studies. The lecture can only determine if learning has been successful if he can describe in detail what is expected of learners, under what circumstances this must be done and end results of the learner can be evaluated. According to Mager (Human, 1999), an objective must have the following features:

4. Performance:

Expectations of the learner are always mentioned in the objective. (For example: The student must analyse a stipulated problem situation).

5. Condition(s):

Important conditions, if any, under which the action must be conducted, must be described. How must the learner present the performance? (For example: The student must be able to analyse a given problem situation by consulting five primary sources).

6. Criterium:
Where possible, the criterium for acceptable conduct in the exposition of the outcome must be elucidated by describing what the learner’s line of action must be to be deemed acceptable, and how the outcome of the learner’s activity will be evaluated. (For example: The student must analyse a stipulated problem situation/ or ten typed pages within one hour by consulting five primary sources).

7. CATEGORIES (DOMAINS OF AREAS OF GOALS AND
OUTCOMES).

7.1 Every lecturer realises that a person (learner) is a complex being, and that outcomes in lecturing and learning emphasise various aspects or facets of a person (learner) in his/her environment. Certain outcomes may be aimed at adjusting the learner’s inner life and principles of conviction, whereas other outcomes might be aimed at increasing the learner’s knowledge and, in this way, adjust the intellectual or reasoning capacity of the learner. The learner can also be requested to demonstrate certain skills and abilities and, in this way, adjust this facet of his/her humaneness.
Outcomes and goals are often classified in a tri-category outline, namely the attainment of knowledge, the learning of skills or abilities and the learning of attitudes, principles of conviction or moral values. The meaning of knowledge in this context is the assimilation/processing of information which can vary between mere facts to complex concepts. Skills refer to disciplines such as reading, writing, computer skills, critical thought and communication. Attitudes or principles of conviction refer to those results which indicate desired attitudes with regard to a variety of stimuli, such as, for example, approval or disapproval, interest or indifference (Human, 1999).

7.2 Categories with different levels

7.2.1 The knowledge/cognitive category of (learning) discipline must further be differentiated and specified. Human (1999) describes the first category as the knowledge or cognitive category which includes goals and objectives which emphasize the level of the reproduction of factual knowledge to critical evaluation of knowledge.

This category of knowing, thinking and problem solving is one of paramount importance, because lecturing, by using of this category, will especially promote meaningful learning.

One of the ways in which the cognitive category is regarded as unique is as already described by Benjamin Bloom in the 1950’s. Bloom and his co-workers divided the cognitive category into six levels (Bloom et al. 1956). These levels of the cognitive category are divided from the simple to the complex, namely, knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

For example, when a student has to evaluate a poem or experiment, knowledge or comprehension must be applied, before analysis, synthesis and evaluation of the poem or experiment can be done in a meaningful manner.

Level 1: Reproduction of Knowledge

The different level, the level of knowledge reproduction, only applies to the recalling and memorising of certain information. No understanding or insight is required, and is also referred to as the level of memory. A consideration amount of objective formulation for teaching/learning is set at this level, and this results in “parrot work” by learners (Example: The learners must be able to mention the presidents of the RSA by name).

Level 2: Comprehension

The second level, the level of comprehension, represents the basic or elementary level of understanding, i.e. learners know what ideas or material must be communicated and they can make use of this. The learner does not fully realize the full implications of these ideas or content (Example: The learner must be able to identify metaphors and comparisons in unknown poems).

Level 3: Application

The third level is the level of application. Abstract ideas, theories of principles can be used in a concrete situation in order to solve problems (Example: The student must demonstrate the ability to forecast weather conditions on the basis of certain meteorological phenomena).

Level 4:

The fourth level, analysing, consists of the analysing of various elements of a concept in order to obtain a lucid relationship between these elements. (For example: At the conclusion of the argument, each student must be able to analyse the relationship between the hypotheses in the argument - in order to differentiate between applied and unapplied hypotheses.)

Level 5:

The fifth level is called the level of synthesis. It involves the combination of the parts to form the whole. It is in this manner that parts and pieces are combined in order to form new patterns for the learner (Example: The student must be able to compile a number of principles and norms which will be useful in the determining of power-sharing between labour and management).

Level 6: Critical evaluation

The sixth level is that of critical evaluation. This includes the assessment made by the learner and usually includes the use of the first five levels. In addition, a type of assessment of value is used in order to obtain an accurate qualitative and quantitative estimate according to specified criteria (Example: The student must be able to assess the most importance theories on creativity by comparing them with).

7.2.2 The affective or disposition categories include goals and objections which emphasise feelings, emotions or the level of acceptance or rejection. These categories can also be classified as hierachical, but not at this stage.

7.2.3 The expertise or psycho-motor categories consist of goals and objectives which emphasise the following levels: a muscular or motor ability, the handling of material and objects of a specified operation which require nerve muscle co-ordination (Human, 1999)

The consequence of this classification or taxonomy is that goals at various levels of particularity can, as it were, be “specified” in order to outline in greater detail the intention and outcome of a course. This also simplifies the evaluation of the lecturing-learning outcome.

8. OUTCOME BASED ACHIEVEMENTS

The attainment of outcomes which lecturers set for students is especially determined by the success which the lecturer in the lecture achieves in orientating or convincing learners of the value that these outcomes have as far as their studies are concerned. In this way, the learner is motivated to work with commitment, and the objective of the work becomes a meaningful aspiration(Cf.Mahlomoholo).

Critical outcomes by the lecturer involves the following actions:

• A clear indication of the course, semester or critical outcomes (thus a broad spectrum orientation).

• A clear statement of problems (should the formulation of the outcome imply the solution to a problem).

• A clear visualisation and formulation of the problem by students as a result of the lecturer’s explanation and questions posed to the students during class.

• A clear understanding must be established by students that they do have a need for knowledge, insight and expertise and this situation must first be counteracted before the relevant problem/problems can be solved.

• A clear explanation of the value of the outcome (why this outcome?), namely:

o Functional value (usefulness);
o forming/shaping value or development value;
o provision of personal needs and
o course requirements.

9. The advantages (possibilities) and disadvantages (limits) of formulating learning outcomes.

9.1 Advantages:

• This forms the basis of thorough planning.

• It is essential for the choice of learning material and promotes continuity uniformity, logic and communication.

• It is essential for the choice of learning opportunities.

• It provides the basis for evaluation. Without formulating outcomes the evaluation becomes arbitrary and, in many aspects, unscientific.

• It encourages lecturers in the use of concrete and detailed planning.

• It has tremendous potential value for students. The following are a few examples:

o In order to be motivated a learner must have a clear outcome.

o Outcomes give meaning to the learner’s work, and create expectations of success.

o Outcomes which are accepted by the learner (she/he has made them her/his own), are the most powerful stimuli to the realization of a specific objective.

o The more specific a goal is set, the higher the level of expected performance.

o Goals of a sufficiently high standard must be set in order for them to be challenging, keeping in mind that they should be realistically attainable.

It is a good communication method between lecturer, students and other interested parties such as library personnel, academic assistants, tutors and supplemental instructors.

9.2 Disadvantages:

• Unforeseen occurrences in die lecturing/learning process are not always covered by goal formulation, and can thus be neglected. If a too strict rigidity is applied to the goals and outcomes, important learning opportunities could be lost.

• Important, more abstract outcomes and goals are often the most difficult to verbalise and could be neglected.

• A great number of outcomes could be set in order to attain a single outcome and, without good goal orientation, the learner could become confused.

• Outcomes which are provided in advance can, in some cases, deprive the learner of the joy of discovery of vision and relations.

• This could lead to losing sight of long-term outcomes, and the quantitative measurable goals could be more emphasised than the qualitative ones, making it more difficult to measure goals. There is inevitably a danger that behavioural thought processes could be compromised by reaching wrong conclusions based on learners’ thoughts and feelings, and explicating specific behavioural patterns. This is something to be guarded against.

10. CONCLUSION

The effectiveness of higher education is closely linked with the attainment of learning goals and outcomes. Firstly, effective lecturing necessitates the clear defining and formulation of outcomes on those levels in which direction in higher education becomes necessary but, secondly, on those levels in which learning by students must be conducted. The formulation of outcomes and goals, the orientation thereto and the assessment of the attainment thereof remains the responsibility of the lecturer. This task can hardly be effectively carried out if there is a lack of knowledge of critical outcomes in Higher Education.