DE MONTFORT'S THESIS ON PEACEKEEPING CHAPTER THREE
CHAPTER 3 - Research design and methodology
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Chapter 3 documents the methods and procedures used to achieve the research objectives: to determine whether there is a need for a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa, to design a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa in accordance with scientific instructional design (ISD) principles and to draft curriculum content on PSO in accordance with the principles of curriculum design.
The chapter presents a discussion on the design of the study. It begins with an account of the sample that includes the sampling techniques employed and the criteria used in the choice of sample size. A description is given of the measuring instruments used to determine whether there is a need among military officers for PSO education and to analyse the possible target group that could participate in the program. Details of the data collection process that includes gaining access to the subjects, data collection techniques and the procedure used are reported on.
The rationale behind the selection of data analysis procedures, as well as the actual procedures used is described and possible sources of limitation in the quality of data collected are discussed.
3.2 DESIGN OF THE STUDY
Research defines as the search for and the generation of new knowledge through scholarly work (Bless & Higson-Smith, 1995:43). The overall plan followed is a non-experimental design. In a non-experimental design there is no manipulation of the independent variable, nor is the setting strictly controlled (SANDF COLET, 2003a:9).
Based on the four-dimensional framework, it becomes possible to categorise the study as one of an empirical nature using primary and secondary sources, as well as numerical and textual data type with medium control (Mouton, 2001:146).
The design report and curriculum are classified as applied research, as they form part of an original investigation undertaken with the primary aim to expand on fundamental knowledge and to apply it after completion (Lategan, Vermeulen & Truscott, and 2003:1). The research is generally descriptive by nature and its main advantage is immediate application after having obtained results. The instructional design (ISD) is “applying scientific knowledge about human learning to the practical tasks of teaching and learning.” ISD technology translates and applies basic research (Newby et al., 2000:10).
Learning theory forms part of the descriptive sciences which describe the way in which things function in the natural world, while the ISD forms part of the design sciences which offer means in which to perform certain human-defined tasks. Descriptive sciences are the law, while design sciences are roadmaps and there is always more than one way to get from point A to point B (Clark, 2000:15).
In order to evaluate the programme content, the researcher will make use of a reputability study. This involves the researcher identifying experts from academic institutions. The comments and criticisms of these experts form the basis of the formative evaluation (Bless & Higson-Smith, 1995:50). The structure of this research design is a framework of clearly formulated decision steps as depicted in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Research Design Framework
RESEARCH
DESIGN
DESIGN OF THE STUDY
SAMPLING
DESRIPTION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENT
DATA COLLECTION
DATA ANALYSIS
Source: Own
3.3 SAMPLING
The researcher has the responsibility of defining the population to be studied (Bless & Higson-Smith, 1995:85). The study included all officers in the SANDF (population), irrespective of rank, age or gender. However, in the light of the size and complexity of the SANDF, the respondents (target population) have been selected from the South African Army (SA Army).
The proposed units (sample frame) from which the respondents were drawn used probability cluster sampling, which included units in the SA Army. These units are representative of the mainstream of SANDF units and selected because they form part of the full time component, their members are utilised for force employment operations internally or externally and they are used for peace support operations under the auspices of the United Nations (UN) or African Union (AU).
The abovementioned reasons make the sample representative of the total population (SANDF). The results are generalised to the total population. A sample randomly drawn from the units of the SA Army reflects as closely as possible the characteristics of the entire population, although the selected sample can rarely, if ever, be a mirror image of the population. Representivity implies that the sample has the same properties as the population from which it was drawn, but in smaller numbers (Welman & Kruger, 1999:45).
All organisational levels were identified and included individual officers, irrespective of rank, age, gender, race or former force in order to ensure a representative sample. Criteria for inclusion in the sample required that participants had to be members of the armed forces, play an active role in the activities of their units, must have had at least two years of experience (in the case of officers) and the literacy level of respondents needed to include the ability to read, write and follow instructions. Subsequently, the population sample frame that completed the questionnaire consisted of 90 officers. According to Welman and Kruger (1999:50), no sample should be fewer than 15 units of analysis, but preferably more than 25.
In order to ensure that each member at a specific unit had an equal chance of selection, the researcher used simple random probability sampling (Corbett and Le Rog, 2003:104). Firstly, a name list of all the officers at the respective units identified all the units of analysis in the sampling frame. A numerical number was allocated to each participant. Secondly, the mechanism selected a table of random numbers that showed no order, irrespective of whether one proceeded along its columns or rows to choose the unit of analysis that ensured that each number had an equal chance of being selected. In other words, if one started at any given number, there was no way in predicting the value of the next number. Next, the numbers of the units of analysis (in the sampling frame) encountered on the table of random numbers were written down. The advantage of a simple random sample is that it was representative of the population in the sense that it did not favour one unit of analysis (individual) over another (Welman and Kruger, 1999:51). The questionnaires were numbered and distributed according to the selected units of analysis.
3.4 DESCRIPTION OF THE MEASURING INSTRUMENT
The measuring instrument, with consideration of the specific objectives of the research, was an attitudinal scale questionnaire comprising sets of items to determine the need for a higher learning programme, assisting in the analysis of the target group. Even though perceptions, attitudes, feelings or the reaction of men and women may have limits, Schneider, Asworth, Higgs, and Carr (1996: 695), noted that significant correlations exist between employee reports of the practices and procedures under which they work, as well as judgements made by external observers. This suggests that people are an accurate gauge of the influence of one variable on others.
According to Welman & Kruger (1999:150) the rationale for using a questionnaire by means of group contact is working with captive audiences that correspond to the administration of a test, since a single person is required to give instructions in one hall. The cost per questionnaire is lower and the supervisor is in full control of the completion of the questionnaires so that no respondent has an excuse not to complete his/her questionnaire.
Subsequently, a response rate of 100% is ensured. Due to the presence of a supervisor, queries regarding the completion of the questionnaire were answered immediately. Another reason for using a questionnaire is that it identifies and describes the characteristics of the sample (Welman & Kruger, 1999:164).
Advantages include the potential to generalise to large populations (Mouton, 2001:153). They are easily standardised, a low drain on time and finances and requires very little training of researchers (Bless & Higson-Smith, 1995:114). Disadvantages include a lack of depth and insider perspective that sometimes leads to criticism of "surface level" analysis (Mouton, 2001:153).
It is difficult to check that the respondent understands the questions (Bless & Higson-Smith, 1995:114). The respondent may choose not to answer a question or questions (questionnaires are therefore not always complete), he/she may guess the answers if uncertain (this may lead to inaccurate results) and cannot clarify any response provided by the respondent (SANDF College of Educational Technology, 2003:48).
3.5 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE
The theoretical framework that informed the study was a literature search and review based on the aim and research objectives of the study as presented in Chapters 1 and 2. The review is sufficiently comprehensive and used essential information sources. It offers a logically organised and integrated summary and theories relevant to the aim of the study. Primary data comprised of an attitude scale questionnaire to collect individual-level data.
Contact was made with the officers commanding of the applicable SA Army units to obtain authorisation and determine a suitable date, time, venue and contact person that will administer the completion of the questionnaire. The visitation programme and information with respect to the project included a description and layout of the nature and extent of the project, as well as an explanation of the procedure to complete the questionnaire. On the day of the survey, a questionnaire was handed to each respondent at the respective units as arranged and collected after completion on the same day.
A pilot study assessed the validity and reliability of the questionnaire, the correctness of some concepts, the adequacy of the method and the instrument of measurement (Bless & Higson-Smith, 1995:43). The participants in the pilot study consisted of 15 officers of the Air Defence Artillery School and 20 officers of the Army Support Base Kimberley.
The criteria for inclusion in the sample were that members had to be either combat participants, combat support participants or combat service support participants. They must have had at least two years of experience in the force and be willing to participate in PSO. The reason for including these respondents is that they belong to SANDF units and have an interest in operations other than war.
In designing the data-collection methods, the researcher concentrated on two important aspects that could have had a significant influence on the credibility and acceptability of the results. These two concepts are the reliability and validity of data-collection methods (SANDF College of Educational Technology, 2003:56). Effective questionnaire construction ensures measurement reliability and effective controls high construct validity (Mouton, 2001:153).
An ISD model formed the blueprint for the design of the proposed learning programme and curriculum. A model is an abstract of a real world situation, the entire process of analysing learning needs and outcomes and the development of a delivery system to meet the outcomes (Briggs, 1977:28).
The model assisted in providing a visual outline of the exact process that would follow. Singled out was the SANDF College of Educational Technology (COLET) basic model, as its design accommodates learning programme research and development requirements (SANDF College of Educational Technology, 2003b:12).
The model provides all essential activities, is scientifically justifiable, simple and logical, shows the relationship between the components and makes provision for a feedback system across the entire system. The process includes analysing qualifications, formulating outcomes, determining and sequencing content, determining the delivery methods, training material and activities, assessment, programme strategy and curriculum development.
The evaluation of the design report and curriculum entails a reputability study. This involved the Central University of Technology, Free State (CUT), identifying experts from within the community and academic institutions. Each expert received a draft copy of the design report, curriculum and a reaction sheet to complete. These experts voiced their opinions on the learning programme contents and the method of implementation. The comments and criticisms form the foundation of the summative evaluation (Bless and Higson-Smith, 1995:50).
ISD based on the principles of Educational Technology makes a significant contribution towards the improvement of training quality. It not only facilitates the implementation of a systems approach, but also places training on a scientific basis from where informed decisions are possible. Various models for instructional design share most of the common, basic components (Walkinshaw, 1992:13).
According to Van Dyk, Nel, Loedolff, and Haasbroek (2001:162), to be reliable and valid, a model needs to adhere to the following: Improve learning and instruction by means of the problem-solving and feedback characteristics of the systematic approach; Improve management of instructional design and development by means of monitoring and control functions of the systematic approach; Improve evaluation processes by means of the designated components and sequence of events, including the feedback and revision events inherent in models of systematic instructional design and test or build learning and instructional theory by means of a theory-based design within a model of instructional design.
3.6 DATA ANALYSIS
Statistical analysis is a method of rendering meaningful, quantitative information (SANDF College of Educational Technology, 2003a:62). After collecting data, an appropriate statistical method was selected to test the research question (Corbett and Le Rog, 2003:5).
The appropriate method for interpreting data was descriptive statistics as described by SPSS computer software (SPSS, 1999). Data recorded as numerical values enable the analysis thereof by statistical means.
Measurement took place on an ordinal level in order to rank data in terms of a formulated order. Descriptive frequencies are converted to percentages illustrating the levels of agreement. Statements accompany tables to describe the results.
During instructional design, the method for interpreting data inherent to the Plan, Develop, and Assess (PDA) model of systematic instructional design used assessment of the designated components and sequence of events, including feedback and revision events.
3.7. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
This research functions within the following limitations: An attitude scales questionnaire does not directly observe the behaviour of subjects, but individuals report on it in terms of the questions put to them. These measuring instruments are therefore susceptible to measurement reactivity, the consequences of which may vary from withholding co-operation to deliberate deception.
The participant's awareness that he/she is completing a measuring instrument may have affected his/her responses to the subsequent completion of the questionnaire. Participants might have responded in a manner not consistent with their true opinion, but what they think is the most suitable response or will portray them in a positive light. Dishonesty in surveys on the part of respondents is a problem (Corbett and Le Rog, 2003:111).
Respondents being biased may be possible due to biases introduced by unresponsive participants, uncooperative participants answering at random and also by those who give false information on purpose due to mistrust, fear, conformity or social status pressures. Furthermore, one can add answers based on the misunderstanding of a question or word or the difficulty experienced by respondents in expressing themselves.
The design and development of a learning programme require a considerable amount of funds for the procurement of books and other material, the development and production of instructional materials, the possible utilisation of consultants and printing costs.
The choice of instructional methods and strategies may be a constraint that requires consideration. As the fulltime availability of learners is in doubt, it restricts programme design options.
It is possible to underestimate the development of a new programme, especially if the design of the programme is subject to effective evaluation before implementation.
According to Langholtz, de Beer and Mostert (2003:11) problems may arise in extending the learning programme to other countries in Africa in support of the NEPAD initiative. Effective evaluation and refinement of the programme is therefore necessary before offering it to other African countries.
3.8 CONCLUSION
This chapter explained the methods and procedures that were used to achieve the research objectives. A non-experimental quantitative design expanded on concepts, ideas and constructs to answer the research questions. The approach considered scientific instructional design based on the principles of educational technology. The participants (target population) were selected from the SANDF. The measuring instrument with consideration of the objectives of the study was an attitudinal scale questionnaire.
The theoretical framework that informed the study was a literature review based on the aim and problem statement of the project. Primary data comprising of an attitudinal scale questionnaire were used to collect individual level data. The pilot study conducted indicated that no changes to the questionnaire were necessary. The members involved in the pilot study did not form part of the main study. The data analysis of the main survey was carried out by using the SPSS statistical package. It was also indicated that the starting point to the ISD process was an ISD model. Possible limitations were indicated.
The chapters that follow record the results of the study by the presentation and the interpretation of data and show the extent of ISD used to produce a design report and curriculum concerning a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Chapter 3 documents the methods and procedures used to achieve the research objectives: to determine whether there is a need for a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa, to design a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa in accordance with scientific instructional design (ISD) principles and to draft curriculum content on PSO in accordance with the principles of curriculum design.
The chapter presents a discussion on the design of the study. It begins with an account of the sample that includes the sampling techniques employed and the criteria used in the choice of sample size. A description is given of the measuring instruments used to determine whether there is a need among military officers for PSO education and to analyse the possible target group that could participate in the program. Details of the data collection process that includes gaining access to the subjects, data collection techniques and the procedure used are reported on.
The rationale behind the selection of data analysis procedures, as well as the actual procedures used is described and possible sources of limitation in the quality of data collected are discussed.
3.2 DESIGN OF THE STUDY
Research defines as the search for and the generation of new knowledge through scholarly work (Bless & Higson-Smith, 1995:43). The overall plan followed is a non-experimental design. In a non-experimental design there is no manipulation of the independent variable, nor is the setting strictly controlled (SANDF COLET, 2003a:9).
Based on the four-dimensional framework, it becomes possible to categorise the study as one of an empirical nature using primary and secondary sources, as well as numerical and textual data type with medium control (Mouton, 2001:146).
The design report and curriculum are classified as applied research, as they form part of an original investigation undertaken with the primary aim to expand on fundamental knowledge and to apply it after completion (Lategan, Vermeulen & Truscott, and 2003:1). The research is generally descriptive by nature and its main advantage is immediate application after having obtained results. The instructional design (ISD) is “applying scientific knowledge about human learning to the practical tasks of teaching and learning.” ISD technology translates and applies basic research (Newby et al., 2000:10).
Learning theory forms part of the descriptive sciences which describe the way in which things function in the natural world, while the ISD forms part of the design sciences which offer means in which to perform certain human-defined tasks. Descriptive sciences are the law, while design sciences are roadmaps and there is always more than one way to get from point A to point B (Clark, 2000:15).
In order to evaluate the programme content, the researcher will make use of a reputability study. This involves the researcher identifying experts from academic institutions. The comments and criticisms of these experts form the basis of the formative evaluation (Bless & Higson-Smith, 1995:50). The structure of this research design is a framework of clearly formulated decision steps as depicted in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Research Design Framework
RESEARCH
DESIGN
DESIGN OF THE STUDY
SAMPLING
DESRIPTION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENT
DATA COLLECTION
DATA ANALYSIS
Source: Own
3.3 SAMPLING
The researcher has the responsibility of defining the population to be studied (Bless & Higson-Smith, 1995:85). The study included all officers in the SANDF (population), irrespective of rank, age or gender. However, in the light of the size and complexity of the SANDF, the respondents (target population) have been selected from the South African Army (SA Army).
The proposed units (sample frame) from which the respondents were drawn used probability cluster sampling, which included units in the SA Army. These units are representative of the mainstream of SANDF units and selected because they form part of the full time component, their members are utilised for force employment operations internally or externally and they are used for peace support operations under the auspices of the United Nations (UN) or African Union (AU).
The abovementioned reasons make the sample representative of the total population (SANDF). The results are generalised to the total population. A sample randomly drawn from the units of the SA Army reflects as closely as possible the characteristics of the entire population, although the selected sample can rarely, if ever, be a mirror image of the population. Representivity implies that the sample has the same properties as the population from which it was drawn, but in smaller numbers (Welman & Kruger, 1999:45).
All organisational levels were identified and included individual officers, irrespective of rank, age, gender, race or former force in order to ensure a representative sample. Criteria for inclusion in the sample required that participants had to be members of the armed forces, play an active role in the activities of their units, must have had at least two years of experience (in the case of officers) and the literacy level of respondents needed to include the ability to read, write and follow instructions. Subsequently, the population sample frame that completed the questionnaire consisted of 90 officers. According to Welman and Kruger (1999:50), no sample should be fewer than 15 units of analysis, but preferably more than 25.
In order to ensure that each member at a specific unit had an equal chance of selection, the researcher used simple random probability sampling (Corbett and Le Rog, 2003:104). Firstly, a name list of all the officers at the respective units identified all the units of analysis in the sampling frame. A numerical number was allocated to each participant. Secondly, the mechanism selected a table of random numbers that showed no order, irrespective of whether one proceeded along its columns or rows to choose the unit of analysis that ensured that each number had an equal chance of being selected. In other words, if one started at any given number, there was no way in predicting the value of the next number. Next, the numbers of the units of analysis (in the sampling frame) encountered on the table of random numbers were written down. The advantage of a simple random sample is that it was representative of the population in the sense that it did not favour one unit of analysis (individual) over another (Welman and Kruger, 1999:51). The questionnaires were numbered and distributed according to the selected units of analysis.
3.4 DESCRIPTION OF THE MEASURING INSTRUMENT
The measuring instrument, with consideration of the specific objectives of the research, was an attitudinal scale questionnaire comprising sets of items to determine the need for a higher learning programme, assisting in the analysis of the target group. Even though perceptions, attitudes, feelings or the reaction of men and women may have limits, Schneider, Asworth, Higgs, and Carr (1996: 695), noted that significant correlations exist between employee reports of the practices and procedures under which they work, as well as judgements made by external observers. This suggests that people are an accurate gauge of the influence of one variable on others.
According to Welman & Kruger (1999:150) the rationale for using a questionnaire by means of group contact is working with captive audiences that correspond to the administration of a test, since a single person is required to give instructions in one hall. The cost per questionnaire is lower and the supervisor is in full control of the completion of the questionnaires so that no respondent has an excuse not to complete his/her questionnaire.
Subsequently, a response rate of 100% is ensured. Due to the presence of a supervisor, queries regarding the completion of the questionnaire were answered immediately. Another reason for using a questionnaire is that it identifies and describes the characteristics of the sample (Welman & Kruger, 1999:164).
Advantages include the potential to generalise to large populations (Mouton, 2001:153). They are easily standardised, a low drain on time and finances and requires very little training of researchers (Bless & Higson-Smith, 1995:114). Disadvantages include a lack of depth and insider perspective that sometimes leads to criticism of "surface level" analysis (Mouton, 2001:153).
It is difficult to check that the respondent understands the questions (Bless & Higson-Smith, 1995:114). The respondent may choose not to answer a question or questions (questionnaires are therefore not always complete), he/she may guess the answers if uncertain (this may lead to inaccurate results) and cannot clarify any response provided by the respondent (SANDF College of Educational Technology, 2003:48).
3.5 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE
The theoretical framework that informed the study was a literature search and review based on the aim and research objectives of the study as presented in Chapters 1 and 2. The review is sufficiently comprehensive and used essential information sources. It offers a logically organised and integrated summary and theories relevant to the aim of the study. Primary data comprised of an attitude scale questionnaire to collect individual-level data.
Contact was made with the officers commanding of the applicable SA Army units to obtain authorisation and determine a suitable date, time, venue and contact person that will administer the completion of the questionnaire. The visitation programme and information with respect to the project included a description and layout of the nature and extent of the project, as well as an explanation of the procedure to complete the questionnaire. On the day of the survey, a questionnaire was handed to each respondent at the respective units as arranged and collected after completion on the same day.
A pilot study assessed the validity and reliability of the questionnaire, the correctness of some concepts, the adequacy of the method and the instrument of measurement (Bless & Higson-Smith, 1995:43). The participants in the pilot study consisted of 15 officers of the Air Defence Artillery School and 20 officers of the Army Support Base Kimberley.
The criteria for inclusion in the sample were that members had to be either combat participants, combat support participants or combat service support participants. They must have had at least two years of experience in the force and be willing to participate in PSO. The reason for including these respondents is that they belong to SANDF units and have an interest in operations other than war.
In designing the data-collection methods, the researcher concentrated on two important aspects that could have had a significant influence on the credibility and acceptability of the results. These two concepts are the reliability and validity of data-collection methods (SANDF College of Educational Technology, 2003:56). Effective questionnaire construction ensures measurement reliability and effective controls high construct validity (Mouton, 2001:153).
An ISD model formed the blueprint for the design of the proposed learning programme and curriculum. A model is an abstract of a real world situation, the entire process of analysing learning needs and outcomes and the development of a delivery system to meet the outcomes (Briggs, 1977:28).
The model assisted in providing a visual outline of the exact process that would follow. Singled out was the SANDF College of Educational Technology (COLET) basic model, as its design accommodates learning programme research and development requirements (SANDF College of Educational Technology, 2003b:12).
The model provides all essential activities, is scientifically justifiable, simple and logical, shows the relationship between the components and makes provision for a feedback system across the entire system. The process includes analysing qualifications, formulating outcomes, determining and sequencing content, determining the delivery methods, training material and activities, assessment, programme strategy and curriculum development.
The evaluation of the design report and curriculum entails a reputability study. This involved the Central University of Technology, Free State (CUT), identifying experts from within the community and academic institutions. Each expert received a draft copy of the design report, curriculum and a reaction sheet to complete. These experts voiced their opinions on the learning programme contents and the method of implementation. The comments and criticisms form the foundation of the summative evaluation (Bless and Higson-Smith, 1995:50).
ISD based on the principles of Educational Technology makes a significant contribution towards the improvement of training quality. It not only facilitates the implementation of a systems approach, but also places training on a scientific basis from where informed decisions are possible. Various models for instructional design share most of the common, basic components (Walkinshaw, 1992:13).
According to Van Dyk, Nel, Loedolff, and Haasbroek (2001:162), to be reliable and valid, a model needs to adhere to the following: Improve learning and instruction by means of the problem-solving and feedback characteristics of the systematic approach; Improve management of instructional design and development by means of monitoring and control functions of the systematic approach; Improve evaluation processes by means of the designated components and sequence of events, including the feedback and revision events inherent in models of systematic instructional design and test or build learning and instructional theory by means of a theory-based design within a model of instructional design.
3.6 DATA ANALYSIS
Statistical analysis is a method of rendering meaningful, quantitative information (SANDF College of Educational Technology, 2003a:62). After collecting data, an appropriate statistical method was selected to test the research question (Corbett and Le Rog, 2003:5).
The appropriate method for interpreting data was descriptive statistics as described by SPSS computer software (SPSS, 1999). Data recorded as numerical values enable the analysis thereof by statistical means.
Measurement took place on an ordinal level in order to rank data in terms of a formulated order. Descriptive frequencies are converted to percentages illustrating the levels of agreement. Statements accompany tables to describe the results.
During instructional design, the method for interpreting data inherent to the Plan, Develop, and Assess (PDA) model of systematic instructional design used assessment of the designated components and sequence of events, including feedback and revision events.
3.7. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
This research functions within the following limitations: An attitude scales questionnaire does not directly observe the behaviour of subjects, but individuals report on it in terms of the questions put to them. These measuring instruments are therefore susceptible to measurement reactivity, the consequences of which may vary from withholding co-operation to deliberate deception.
The participant's awareness that he/she is completing a measuring instrument may have affected his/her responses to the subsequent completion of the questionnaire. Participants might have responded in a manner not consistent with their true opinion, but what they think is the most suitable response or will portray them in a positive light. Dishonesty in surveys on the part of respondents is a problem (Corbett and Le Rog, 2003:111).
Respondents being biased may be possible due to biases introduced by unresponsive participants, uncooperative participants answering at random and also by those who give false information on purpose due to mistrust, fear, conformity or social status pressures. Furthermore, one can add answers based on the misunderstanding of a question or word or the difficulty experienced by respondents in expressing themselves.
The design and development of a learning programme require a considerable amount of funds for the procurement of books and other material, the development and production of instructional materials, the possible utilisation of consultants and printing costs.
The choice of instructional methods and strategies may be a constraint that requires consideration. As the fulltime availability of learners is in doubt, it restricts programme design options.
It is possible to underestimate the development of a new programme, especially if the design of the programme is subject to effective evaluation before implementation.
According to Langholtz, de Beer and Mostert (2003:11) problems may arise in extending the learning programme to other countries in Africa in support of the NEPAD initiative. Effective evaluation and refinement of the programme is therefore necessary before offering it to other African countries.
3.8 CONCLUSION
This chapter explained the methods and procedures that were used to achieve the research objectives. A non-experimental quantitative design expanded on concepts, ideas and constructs to answer the research questions. The approach considered scientific instructional design based on the principles of educational technology. The participants (target population) were selected from the SANDF. The measuring instrument with consideration of the objectives of the study was an attitudinal scale questionnaire.
The theoretical framework that informed the study was a literature review based on the aim and problem statement of the project. Primary data comprising of an attitudinal scale questionnaire were used to collect individual level data. The pilot study conducted indicated that no changes to the questionnaire were necessary. The members involved in the pilot study did not form part of the main study. The data analysis of the main survey was carried out by using the SPSS statistical package. It was also indicated that the starting point to the ISD process was an ISD model. Possible limitations were indicated.
The chapters that follow record the results of the study by the presentation and the interpretation of data and show the extent of ISD used to produce a design report and curriculum concerning a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa.
posted by Kallie (Karel Johannes) de Beer at 6:18 AM
0 Comments:
Post a Comment
<< Home