RESEARCH ON PEACEKEEPING

RESEARCH ON PEACEKEEPING RESEARCH OUTCOMES OF A STUDY FOR PEACEKEEPING TRAINING FOR SOUTH AFRICAN NATIONAL DEFENCE SOLDIERS Compiled by : PJ De Montfort and KJ De Beer ABSTRACT This research paper is an account of the results of the study according to the research objectives, presented in the form of an ISD report. The reporting begins with Section 1 on Need Analysis, reflecting whether there is a need among SA Army officers in the SANDF for a Model of Co-operative Education on Peacekeeping Support Operations (PSO) in Africa. It also answers the question on the best method to design such a learning programme. Section 2 presents a job description and target group analysis. The purpose of the job description was to establish generic job performance and to identify training needs from which learning outcomes will derive. The aim of the target group analysis is to create a learner profile that describes the characteristics of the target population. The purpose of Section 3 was to align the generic job requirement of a peacekeeper with the training needs. The job requirement, the qualification and the unit standards are required to match. This, together with the information from the literature review, translates into exit outcomes and specific outcomes. SECTION 1 – NEED ANALYSIS Our research established that there is a need for PSO education. No major university in South Africa is currently contributing towards education in the field of generic PSO in Africa. Broadening the knowledge and skills based through higher education is a means of shaping appropriate attitudes and setting the right expectations to help SANDF members and NGOs adapt to the demands of PSO. The purpose of this section is to determine whether there is a need for a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa amongst officers of the SA Army and, if there is, how to design such a curriculum. Van Dyk et al. (1992:164) articulate that a needs analysis has the purpose of assessing the unique requirements of a situation. According to Rothwell and Kazanas (1992:46), a needs assessment is a scheme for collecting information concerning ETD needs. This section essentially focuses on the following critical questions and possible course considerations: • UCritical Question 1U: Is there a need among SA Army officers in the SANDF for a Model of Co-operative Education on generic PSO in Africa? • UCritical Question 2U: What is the best method to design such a learning programme? CRITICAL QUESTION 1: IS THERE A NEED AMONG SA ARMY OFFICERS IN THE SANDF FOR A MODEL OF CO-OPERATIVE EDUCATION ON GENERIC PSO IN AFRICA? Attitudinal survey: An attitudinal questionnaire assisted in establishing whether there is a need for a model on co-operative education amongst officers of the SA Army. Table 1: Survey Results Peace missions are multi-dimensional operations with a political, economical, social, legal and security-related focus. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 3 3.3 3.3 3.3 Disagree 2 2.2 2.2 5.6 Uncertain 9 10.0 10.0 15.6 Agree 42 46.7 46.7 62.2 Strongly agree 34 37.8 37.8 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 The military is one of many role players in the processes in which civilians and police officers have become essential to the success of PSO. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 4 4.4 4.4 4.4 Disagree 8 8.9 8.9 13.3 Uncertain 6 6.7 6.7 20.0 Agree 37 41.1 41.1 61.1 Strongly agree 35 38.9 38.9 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 The SANDF relies on general-purpose combat training supplemented by mission-specific training to prepare soldiers for peace missions. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 4 4.4 4.4 4.4 Disagree 4 4.4 4.4 8.9 Uncertain 11 12.2 12.2 21.1 Agree 55 61.1 61.1 82.2 Strongly agree 16 17.8 17.8 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 General-purpose training on its own is not adequate to equip military personnel with the full range of skills required to meet the challenges presented in African PSO. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 Disagree 13 14.4 14.4 15.6 Uncertain 20 22.2 22.2 37.8 Agree 33 36.7 36.7 74.4 Strongly agree 23 25.6 25.6 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 Training in non-combat skills is as important as general-purpose combat training if one is to succeed as a peacekeeper. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 3 3.3 3.3 3.3 Disagree 6 6.7 6.7 10.0 Uncertain 9 10.0 10.0 20.0 Agree 47 52.2 52.2 72.2 Strongly agree 25 27.8 27.8 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 I need more peacekeeping training and experience to do my job as a peacekeeper well. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 4 4.4 4.4 4.4 Disagree 3 3.3 3.3 7.8 Uncertain 8 8.9 8.9 16.7 Agree 40 44.4 44.4 61.1 Strongly agree 35 38.9 38.9 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 It is not necessary for all members of the SANDF to undergo formal training in PSO. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 26 28.9 28.9 28.9 Disagree 38 42.2 42.2 71.1 Uncertain 8 8.9 8.9 80.0 Agree 10 11.1 11.1 91.1 Strongly agree 8 8.9 8.9 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 2 2.2 2.2 2.2 Disagree 9 10.0 10.0 12.2 Uncertain 43 47.8 47.8 60.0 Agree 21 23.3 23.3 83.3 Strongly agree 15 16.7 16.7 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 Current SANDF courses on PSO are too short. The PSO course content should be more in-depth. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 Disagree 9 10.0 10.0 11.1 Uncertain 31 34.4 34.4 45.6 Agree 32 35.6 35.6 81.1 Strongly agree 17 18.9 18.9 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 The PSO course content focuses too much on general-purpose combat training (conventional warfare). Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 Disagree 14 15.6 15.6 16.7 Uncertain 39 43.3 43.3 60.0 Agree 27 30.0 30.0 90.0 Strongly agree 9 10.0 10.0 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 3 3.3 3.3 3.3 Disagree 8 8.9 8.9 12.2 Uncertain 34 37.8 37.8 50.0 Agree 38 42.2 42.2 92.2 Strongly agree 7 7.8 7.8 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 The variety of PSO courses in the SANDF is limited. Everybody has equal access to current PSO training. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 16 17.8 17.8 17.8 Disagree 28 31.1 31.1 48.9 Uncertain 23 25.6 25.6 74.4 Agree 18 20.0 20.0 94.4 Strongly agree 5 5.6 5.6 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 I enjoy attending long courses away from home (3 months and longer). Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 14 15.6 15.6 15.6 Disagree 35 38.9 38.9 54.4 Uncertain 10 11.1 11.1 65.6 Agree 21 23.3 23.3 88.9 Strongly agree 10 11.1 11.1 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 I prefer training to take place at my local unit. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 8 8.9 8.9 8.9 Disagree 25 27.8 27.8 36.7 Uncertain 10 11.1 11.1 47.8 Agree 32 35.6 35.6 83.3 Strongly agree 15 16.7 16.7 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 Members will be more motivated to attend military courses if the courses are accredited at an external tertiary education institution. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 4 4.4 4.4 4.4 Disagree 6 6.7 6.7 11.1 Uncertain 8 8.9 8.9 20.0 Agree 33 36.7 36.7 56.7 Strongly agree 39 43.3 43.3 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 The SANDF does not need a culture of lifelong learning. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 33 36.7 36.7 36.7 Disagree 26 28.9 28.9 65.6 Uncertain 12 13.3 13.3 78.9 Agree 10 11.1 11.1 90.0 Strongly agree 9 10.0 10.0 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 Disagree 4 4.4 4.4 5.6 Uncertain 2 2.2 2.2 7.8 Agree 35 38.9 38.9 46.7 Strongly agree 48 53.3 53.3 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 Training enhances employee confidence. Officers and Warrant Officers will be more motivated to attend courses if the focus is on self-development. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 2 2.2 2.2 2.2 Disagree 2 2.2 2.2 4.4 Uncertain 11 12.2 12.2 16.7 Agree 41 45.6 45.6 62.2 Strongly agree 34 37.8 37.8 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 All Warrant Officers and Officers in the SANDF should have the opportunity to obtain a relevant tertiary qualification. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 Disagree 2 2.2 2.2 3.3 Uncertain 5 5.6 5.6 8.9 Agree 33 36.7 36.7 45.6 Strongly agree 49 54.4 54.4 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 I would attend a United Nations accredited national diploma/degree course on PSO if granted the opportunity. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 Disagree 2 2.2 2.2 3.3 Uncertain 9 10.0 10.0 13.3 Agree 25 27.8 27.8 41.1 Strongly agree 53 58.9 58.9 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 A national diploma/degree on PSO will allow us to create a competitive advantage in developing new knowledge and skills for the future. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 Disagree 2 2.2 2.2 3.3 Uncertain 4 4.4 4.4 7.8 Agree 33 36.7 36.7 44.4 Strongly agree 50 55.6 55.6 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 Correspondence instruction with regular contact sessions is a good idea. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 3 3.3 3.3 3.3 Disagree 3 3.3 3.3 6.7 Uncertain 7 7.8 7.8 14.4 Agree 38 42.2 42.2 56.7 Strongly agree 39 43.3 43.3 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 A national diploma/degree qualification will assist officers and warrant officers towards a new career after retrenchment or early pension. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Strongly disagree 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 Disagree 2 2.2 2.2 3.3 Uncertain 5 5.6 5.6 8.9 Agree 33 36.7 36.7 45.6 Strongly agree 49 54.4 54.4 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 Data Interpretation and findings of the survey indicate the following: There is broad consensus among officers of the SA Army that the SANDF relies on general-purpose combat training (GPCT), supplemented by mission specific PSO training to prepare for peace missions (80% agree/strongly agree). Members agree/strongly agree that GPCT on its own is not adequate to equip military personnel with the full range of skills required to meet the challenges present in African PSO (79%). SA Army officers is of the opinion that training in non-combat skills is as important as GPCT if one is to succeed as a peacekeeper (80% agree/strongly agree). The majority of SA Army officers felt that there is a need for more peacekeeping training and experience to execute their jobs as peacekeepers effectively (83.3% agree/strongly agree). Seventy one percent (71%) of the respondents strongly agree/agree that it is necessary for all members of the SANDF to undergo peacekeeping training More than half of the respondents, 55% agree or strongly agree that PSO courses should be in more depth. The respondents believe that members will be motivated to attend additional training if a tertiary institution accredits such training (80% strongly agree/agree). A large number of the SA Army officers (65.6%) participating in the survey is of the opinion that the SANDF needs a culture of lifelong learning. The vast majority (92%) of SA Army officers agree/strongly agree that training enhances confidence. Respondents agree or strongly agree (91%) that all warrant officers and officers in the SANDF should get the opportunity to obtain a relevant tertiary qualification. The large numbers of 86.7% agree or strongly agree that they would attend a UN accredited, national diploma/degree course in PSO. Results indicate clearly that a national diploma/degree in PSO will allow the SANDF to create a competitive advantage in developing new knowledge and skills for the future (92.3% agree/strongly agree). Respondents indicate that correspondence instruction with regular contact sessions is a good idea to present a learning program such as PSO (85.5% agree/strongly agree). The attitude of 91% (agree/strongly agree) of SA Army officers is that a national diploma/degree qualification will assist them and warrant officers in starting a new career after leaving the defence force. Summary The results of the survey confirm that a performance problem exists. The survey results are a very strong indicator of the attitude of SA Army officer in the SANDF towards PSO training and higher education on PSO. The results of the survey confirm that there is an unambiguous need for a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa among SA Army officers in the SANDF. ETD cannot be planned in isolation or according to own standards. The design of a learning programme must take place within the context of the ETD environment as it has developed and exists today. Legislation such as national standards and qualifications, unit standards, outcomes-based education and training and relevant role-players govern outcomes (SANDF COLET, 2003b:67). Although there are existing courses presented by the United Nations Institute for Training and Research Peacekeeping Operations Correspondence Instruction (UNITAR POCI) other international institutions and defence forces, it is important that African doctrine for PSO should not only derive from abroad. African realities are inevitably different from the environment that has shaped European and American doctrinal development. A deduction is that the learner target group will not be available on a full time basis. The probable learning approach is correspondence instruction or first generation distance education supported with second-generation distance education, which includes limited face-to-face co-operative education supported with distance education modes of delivery such as e-learning (CF. Badenhorst, 2004). This multimode method offers flexible in-service training of peacekeeping militia all over the world, in essence, the co-operative training model per excellence. Distance education is most effective when used to reach a large population of geographically distributed learners who require standard training in knowledge-based topics and when the training must be delivered directly to learners without delay and at a low per-learner cost. (Langholtz, de Beer, and Mostert, 2003:11). However, not all the factors that could influence this solution are available and therefore a final decision with regard to programme approach is not yet possible. CRITICAL QUESTION 2: WHAT IS THE BEST METHOD TO DESIGN A LEARNING PROGRAM? Achieving concurrence with international and national obligations and needs became important when South Africa joined international organisations, of which the most significant are the UN, AU and the SADC. The resulting involvement in multi-national peace PSO on the African continent provides the direction for ETD requirements at different levels. The need to transform the education and training approach in South Africa reflects in the Constitution of the RSA, Act 108 of 1996, deciding on an outcomes-based education (OBE) and training approach (SANDF COLET, 2006:1). The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) is the RSA’s answer to global and national demands for a change in the approach to ETD, promulgating an ETD system, which is learner-centred and will encourage learners to accept responsibility for their own learning (van der Westhuizen, 1998:29). The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) (Act 85 0f 1995), states that the purpose of all ETD is to equip learners with KSAs that will enable meaningful participation in society. The National Skills Development Strategy, the Skills Development Act (Act 97 of 1998) and the DOD Human Resource (HR) 2010 Strategy compel the SA DOD to enable its employees to transfer KSAs to meaningful civilian careers outside the SANDF (DOD Strategy 2010, DoD: White Paper, 1998:23; National Skills Strategy; Skills Development Act 97 of 1998). The SA DOD recognises that it is necessary to establish ETD standards that promote approval, excellence, recognition and accreditation (De Vries, 1997: 33). The future goal is to educate, train and develop decision-makers in the SA DOD who are “fit for the challenges of the 21st century” (Modise, 1997:2). Van Dyk, Nel and Loedolff (1992:147) define education as activities aimed at developing knowledge, moral values and understanding required in all aspects of life. According to Jerling, (1999:3) education is a comprehensive concept and may even include the concepts of training and development. Erasmus and Van Dyk (1999:2) define training as a systematic and planned process to change the KSAs of employees in order to achieve organisational objectives. Van Dyk et al. (2001: 148) define training as a systematic process of changing the behaviour and/or attitudes of people in a certain direction to increase goal achievement within the organisation. Zemke (1999:8) states that training is about giving people the knowledge and skills to do their jobs. De Cenzo and Robbins (1994:255) suggest that development focuses on future jobs in the organisation. Development refers to possibilities within a job, with reference to the employee’s personal growth and goals (Nel, Gerber, Van Dyk, H. Schultz, and Sono, 2001:49). Development aims to empower employees serving in a managerial capacity or preparing for managerial posts within the organisation (Van Dyk et al. 2001:148), referring to learning opportunities designed to help individuals grow (Bernadin and Russell, 1993:297). It is essential to see the concepts of education, training and development in relation to one another if both the organisation and employees are to benefit. Education is essential for every individual, both for life in general and the workplace in particular. Training and development will succeed only if the individual has received an adequate standard of education. Training is necessary to correct work procedures and improve performance at the workplace. Development, on the other hand, should enrich not only the individual, but also the group. From this, it is clear that these concepts are interrelated (Zwane, 1995 in Jerling 1999:3). SAQA accepted OBE as the prescribed system for all education and training programmes, which require accreditation in terms of the NQF (Van Dyk et al. 2001:150). OBE implies that everything focuses on what is essential for the learner to be able to do at the end of the learning experience (Spady, 1994:2). According to SANDF COLET (2006:2), OBE is as an approach, which focuses on the outcomes of learning, with the emphasis on what the learner should be able to do. The concept of educational technology (Ed Tech) has become increasingly important in the field of ETD. Technology is the systematic application of scientific or other related knowledge to practical tasks (Galbraith, 1967: 12), concerned with teaching (Knirk and Gustafson, 1986:16), applying scientific knowledge regarding human learning to teaching and learning (Heinrich, Molenda, Russell, and Smaldino, 1993:16). Definitions that is more recent states Ed Tech is the theory and practice of design, development and evaluation of processes and resources of learning (Seels, 1995:1) or the use of knowledge, systems and techniques to enhance human learning. It is a broader applied discipline within the broader science of education. Essential characteristics of Ed Tech are that it supports a systems approach, continuous evaluation and learning programmes designed according to instructional design (Van der Walt, 2005: V). So, why use ISD to create a learning programme? Simply stated, ISD is a common sense approach to ETD. It analyses the problem, designs a specification, develops the courseware, implements the solution and performs evaluations throughout the process (Clark 2000:1). ISD is a means of planning a learning programme from the point of need analysis until the presentation of the programme. It is a process to create effective training in an efficient manner (SANDF COLET, 2003b:2) and to translate principles of learning into plans for learning activities and materials (Smith and Ragan, 1999:2). Newby, Stepich, Lehman, and Russell (2000:67) has a similar view by describing ISD as a systematic process for developing plans for instruction through practical application of theoretical principles. Point of Departure ETD that occurs within an organisation typically has one main purpose, the improvement of organisation effectiveness (Langenbach, 1993:11). The ETD process is self-sustaining, continuously improved and updated, based on the feedback fed into the process. The ETD process (see figure 1) is the point of departure for the design of this learning programme, further enhanced through an ISD model (SANDF COLET, 2003b:11). Figure 1: ETD process Analyse Design Deliver Evaluate Feedback Source: Adapted form SANDF COLET, 2003b:18 A variety of ISD models related to the ETD process explains how the ETD processes apply in different situations Jerling, 1999:70). (Dick and Carey (1996:4) emphasise that there is no single approach for designing instruction. The various models, however, all share the same basic components. Models are very useful, as they enhance the chances of success in training design (Van Dyk et al. 2001:162). The intention was not to describe each of the following models in any detail, but rather to concentrate on the main activities of the ISD process in general. The models examined included the high-impact model (Chang, 1994:15), Nadler’s critical events model (Nadler, 1982:12), the model of Camp, Blanchard and Huszco (Camp et al, 1986:4), the outcomes-based curriculum design (Olivier, 1998:44), generic competency-based training model (Blank, 1982:26), literacy curriculum model of Newman (Langenbach, 1993:82) and the COLET basic model (SANDF COLET, 2003b:14). The various model’s all share the same basic components (Van Dyk et al., 2001:162) illustrated in figure 2 (Bramley, 1991:6). The situation within each organisation determines the model of choice. Figure 2: The main elements of ISD 1. Identification of the training need 2. Training Objective 3. Selection and design of programmes 4. Carry out training 5. Evaluative feedback loops Source: Bramley 1991:6 A customised (read Africanised) model named Plan, Develop and Assess (PDA) incorporates the various elements of training design for the design of this learning programme. The PDA model meets the terms of an instructional design model as it does the following: • Adjusts to the SANDF’s training system and training approach. • Provides for all the essential activities. • Is scientifically justifiable. • Is simple and logic. • Clearly indicates the mutual relationship between the components. • Makes provision for a feedback system across the entire system. • Is suitable for the particular situation. The model has a built-in validity check and openness in the form of the evaluation and feedback loop that forms part of each event in the model. The model has definite inputs and outputs and the following main steps: plan, develop and assess. The PDA model consists of the components illustrated in figure 3 and applies as follows: • All the steps of the models’ planning component are utilised in the design of the learning programme. • Use all the steps of the models development component during planning for the further development of the programme. • The application of two steps of the models assessment component is relevant to the final report namely planning assessment criteria and reputability study. Figure 3: PDA Model of Instructional Design Input Transformation Output Environmental Influences Resources: People Material Information Finances Plan Develop Assessment Feedback Deliver Evaluation Improve KSA’s Job Competence Organisation Effectiveness Productivity Design Plan Develop Assess Job description and Target group analysis Formulate Outcomes Analyse Training Need Analysis of Outcomes Learning Content Delivery Methods Learning Material Assessment Programme strategy Curriculum Assessment Criteria Reputability Study Feedback and Improve/adjust Input Output Source: Newby et al. 2000:8 A simple map of the model as illustrated guides the design of the learning programme. Figure 4 shows integration of the PDA model into ETD process. Figure 4: ISD Model integration Analyse Design Delivery Evaluation Feedback P = Plan D = Develop A = Assess Source: (De Montfort, PJ. 2006) Summary The purpose of this section was threefold: to confirm whether there is a problem with regard to training, to consider broad course options, to determine whether there is a need for a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa and to indicate how to design the envisaged programme. The technique used to collect information for the establishment of the training need was an attitudinal survey. The survey results indicate a training gap and confirm the need amongst SA Army officers in the SANDF to participate in a tertiary programme on PSO in Africa. The next section presents a job description and target group analysis. section 2: job description and target group ANALYSIS ORIENTATION Section 1 established that there is a training need among SA Army officers in the SADF to participate in a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa. The section also made a declaration of departure point by identifying a model of ISD to assist in the compilation of the design report and curriculum. The purpose of section 2 is to carry out a job analysis and analyse the target group for which the proposed Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa is designed. The purpose of the job analysis is to establish generic job performance and identify training needs from which learning outcomes will be derived. The aim of the target group analysis is to create a learner profile that describes the characteristics of the target population for whom the training programme is designed. If a training programme has to provide a worthwhile return on investment, it must be relative to the job. This means that the learning experiences provided for the learners during the training must be directly related to the duties and tasks they have to perform in the job situation. Consequently, it is essential that the job performance requirements, including accurate and objective job data, are gathered and analysed. Accurate training needs can be determined from job performance requirements (Van Dyk et al. 2001:191). Nadler (1982:47) maintains that, to specify job performance data, it is necessary to separate the person from the job and merely concentrate on the job. JOB DESCRIPTION A comprehensive job description consists out of a job and task analysis, providing the trainer with useful information. Job analysis discover what tasks need to be performed in order to do the job and therefore, what needs to be learned in order to perform effectively (Bramley, 1991:11) in the process of collecting, tabulating, grouping, analysing, interpreting and reporting data pertaining to the work performed by individuals (Tracy, 1984:88). Erasmus and Van Dyk (1999:199) add that job analysis deals with the identification of various tasks and the knowledge, skills, abilities and responsibilities that a person must have in order to perform the job. Task analysis is the process of breaking down a task into smaller units and then sequencing these units in order of priority based on their importance in performing the job (Carnevale, Gainer, and Meltzer., 1990:44), providing a comprehensive description of the task (Wolmarans and Eksteen, 1987:102). A job description, therefore, comprises of a list of functions and tasks within a particular job (Van Dyk et al. 2001:192). Tracy (1984:91) states that regardless of how well the subsequent steps in instructional design, development and validation are carried out, if job data is not complete, valid and reliable, the resulting system will fail to produce personnel who are capable of performing their duties at an acceptable level of proficiency. The method used in this section includes a combination of methods such as the questionnaire, the walk-and-talk technique and the analysis of PSO manuals. Generic Job Description of a Peacekeeper • The officer in a peacekeeping role must be able to serve on a UN or AU peacekeeping missions as a field operator in various positions such as military observer, liaison officer, staff officer, and commanding officer. Execute as part of a contingent, different types of peace operations in accordance with regulations and procedures. • The officer must be able to plan, integrate (organise), direct and control the activities of human and other resources allocated to him/her. • He/she guides work operations through the establishment of objectives, application of policies, rules, practices, methods and standards in order to prepare and ensure that elements under command is mission ready. • He/she needs to promote a sense of intelligence/security awareness amongst subordinates. Collect, analyse, organise and critically assess any information relevant to peacekeeping missions in Africa to make a sound judgement of any given situation. • Ensure a high standard of training with regard to different types of peace operations. Satisfy the need for tertiary education, improved knowledge and changed attitudes towards peace missions in Africa. Assess peacekeeping operations from an international perspective in order to apply lessons learnt in the African peacekeeping environment. • Accept the responsibility for logistic planning, equipment, stores and buildings under control. Monitor the financial planning and control expenditure of allocated funds. • Apply the elements of a geo-political study in order to compile a geo-political profile of a given country in Africa for peacekeeping purposes. • Contribute to the CIMIC process by working in close collaboration with local authorities, UN peacekeeping forces and other agencies in ensuring safe access to vulnerable populations of concern. • Ensure the essential dialogue and interaction between agencies and military actors that are required to protect, promote and ensure that humanitarian principles are applied and humanitarian operational goals achieved and, in doing so, any inconsistency in the pursuit of appropriate common goals is de-conflicted and/or minimised. • Advocate that peacekeeping forces apply the “Law of Armed Conflict” (LOAC) and facilitate awareness training. Display the attitudes required to become an unbiased diplomat under the African Union or United Nations flag for peacekeeping operations. • Be able to act as military observer and report on activities in his/her sector of operations. The officer has to maintain impartiality and objectivity in his/her dealings. • The officer needs to be fluent in written and spoken English, physically fit, not HIV positive, of sound mental character, mature in attitude and outlook and equipped with the appropriate qualifications and experience for the mission. He/she must be in possession of a Code 8 driver’s licence. TARGET GROUP ANALYSIS Training design places the learner central in the learning process (Walkinshaw, 1992:14). Therefore, a description of the learner group designated to participate in the learning program is important to determine entry requirements and decide on instructional methods, media, and techniques and approaches most appropriate (Van Dyk et al. 2001:178). The results obtained from the survey questionnaire reflect in table 2 and form the basis for the description and analysis of the target group. Table 2: Target group analysis survey results Gender Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Male 81 90.0 90.0 90.0 Female 9 10.0 10.0 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 Rank Group Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Lt Col 9 10.0 10.0 10.0 Major 33 36.7 36.7 46.7 Captain 24 26.7 26.7 73.3 Lieutenant 16 17.8 17.8 91.1 Warrant-0fficer 8 8.9 8.9 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 Age Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid 24 and younger 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 25 and older 89 98.9 98.9 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 Academic Qualification Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Grade 10 3 3.3 3.3 3.3 Grade 12 67 74.4 74.4 77.8 Certificate 5 5.6 5.6 83.3 Diploma 8 8.9 8.9 92.2 Degree 7 7.8 7.8 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 Language Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid English 43 47.8 47.8 47.8 Afrikaans 42 46.7 46.7 94.4 African Language 5 5.6 5.6 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 Experience Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid 0-5 years 2 2.2 2.2 2.2 6-10 years 36 40.0 40.0 42.2 11-15 years 25 27.8 27.8 70.0 16-20 years 18 20.0 20.0 90.0 21-30 years 9 10.0 10.0 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 Learning Style Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Activist 21 23.3 23.3 23.3 Reflector 11 12.2 12.2 35.6 Theorist 19 21.1 21.1 56.7 Pragmatist 39 43.3 43.3 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 Cultural Factor Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Own community culture 13 14.4 14.4 14.4 Military culture 46 51.1 51.1 65.6 Functional group 5 5.6 5.6 71.1 National culture 26 28.9 28.9 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 Peace support operations course Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Yes 32 35.6 35.6 35.6 No 58 64.4 64.4 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 Peace support operations deployment Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Yes 21 23.3 23.3 23.3 No 69 76.7 76.7 100.0 Total 90 100.0 100.0 Target Group Description and Analysis A target group description gives an account of the characteristics that members of the target group have in common, i.e. “as is”, whereas the analysis obtain information that could be valuable when specifically developing the learning programme and how it will influence the learning programme (SANDF COLET, 2004:6). Using the data obtained from the survey the following target group description and analysis was possible using the criteria biographical, background information and attitude: Biographical Information Culture. All are South Africans coming from diverse backgrounds. The largest percentage, 51%, views the military culture as the most important, whereas 28.9% prefers national culture. The relationship between the different ethnic groups will vary in accordance with the degree in which their religious beliefs, values, language and customs correlate. Difference in mother tongue is frequently associated with ethnic differences; this could possibly lead to problems in a diverse group. Insufficient communication on the levels of training, administration and operational experience can lead to a lesser amount of effectiveness. Different attitudes and values characterise various ethnic groups. These attitudes and values form part of the education of the individual and form the basis for his/her outlook on life. These differences have an influence on the receptiveness of training, as well as the skill to perform normal daily military tasks and activities. It is therefore very important that all learners train in cross–cultural aspects and facilitators are sensitive towards issues of diversity. A strong a-political stance is necessary. Fortunately, the majority of respondents (51%) view the military culture as most important. The language of respondents includes English, Afrikaans, and various African languages. Language is not only a vehicle for communication; it is also a symbol of national and ethnic alliance. Problems could therefore arise in the selection of a language programme. One could avoid this by selecting a language that is not exclusive to any ethnic grouping. The survey results indicate that the majority of respondents prefer English as their language of choice; therefore, the thread language for the learning program will be English. Members can understand, write, read and communicate in English. This will enhance the effectiveness of communication. Forty eight percent (48%) of the members that participated in the survey prefer English as the common language. Age. All the officers and warrant offices included in the survey were over the age of 25 years, i.e. the average age of the learner group is between 25 and 60 years. Learners are all adults and able to follow a routine and adhere to discipline. Adults have a need to learn, are motivated, participate actively in the learning process and take responsibility for learning. The average age of the learners is 35 years. Most of the members are in their mid-career. Normally this is a time of success and major achievement. Members are therefore eager to learn as much as they can in order to advance their careers. According to Robbins (2001:33-36), age has no influence on productivity and therefore we conclude that no prospective members on this learning programme should have trouble with added responsibility. Older workers and those with longer tenure are less likely to resign. Gender. Eighty-one (81) male and nine (9) female officers completed the survey. The researchers assumed that gender should not have a significant impact on the program. According to Robbins (2001: 33-36), few differences affect performance between men and women. However, preferences for work schedules differ – working mothers prefer part-time work, flexible work schedules and telecommuting in order to accommodate family responsibilities. It might be difficult for them to attend anticipate contact sessions. In the case of absence and turn over rates, evidence is mixed. Service years of the participants in the SANDF range from one to 30 years. Results indicate that the majority of members (77%) have between 6 and 15 years of experience in the military. A wide variety of experience could compliment learning. Robbins (2001:33-36) says tenure has consistently related negatively to turnover. It is one of the single best predictors of turnover. Survey results indicate that the majority of respondents have between 6 and 15 years of service and therefore fall in a very stable category concerning turnover. Rank group: Warrant officer to Lieutenant Colonel. Approximately 63% are in the rank group Captain to Major. This indicates that officers that took part in the survey are senior members with experience of the military culture, values and norms. These members are able to take responsibility for their own learning. They have mutual respect for one another; and different learning experiences form a rich source of information. Mustering: All the respondents are from the military, coming from different service components within the SA Army. The majority of members (82%) are from the teeth arms of the SA Army and includes infantry, armour, artillery, air defence artillery, intelligence and field engineers. This means that all understand the use of military terminology and acronym examples. Most share a common culture in the military. All members of the SANDF have done general-purpose combat training and therefore have a solid foundation as a starting point to convert into unbiased peacekeepers. All members have common organisational outcomes, and teamwork is established. Physical Disabilities. None of the respondents has physical disabilities. Therefore, there is need for any special arrangements. A peacekeeper working in the field of physical PSO needs to fit according to military standards. The marital Status of the group is either married or single. Marital status should not have a direct impact on the programme. There are not enough studies to draw any conclusions regarding the effect of marital status on productivity. However, Robbins (2001:33-36)) remarks that married employees have fewer absences, less turnover and report higher job satisfaction than unmarried employees do. Background Information Academic and Formal Qualifications. The majority (74.4%) has grade 12. Twenty-two and five percent (22.5%) has tertiary qualifications. This means that all respondents are literate i.e. can read, write and comprehend information. They are able to identify and solve problems, carry out information processing and have an understanding of systems. Therefore, they will be able to organise themselves and their activities. Military Qualifications. Military qualifications range from senior Non-commissioned officer (NCO) programs to junior command and staff duties program. All members have completed basic training, individual specialised training, sub-unit and unit training, integrated training and a wide array of other general-purpose combat training. The researcher concludes that a wide range of military experience gives the opportunity to use the existing competencies among members to the benefit of learning in the PSO field. Previous experience relating to the topic of PSO. The majority of respondents (64.4%) have not completed a course in PSO. Of the respondents, 76.7% have not yet deployed as peacekeepers. The results of the survey show that some members have deployed externally without having completed a formal peacekeeping course, indicating that there is a performance gap. The researcher reaffirms that the SANDF generally relies on general-purpose combat training with pre-deployment peace training to prepare its soldiers for peacekeeping missions. Learner’s Attitude Learning style preferences common to this group include; Pragmatist 43%, Activist 23.3% and Theorist 21.1%. This result means that the learning program needs to cater for all learning styles, especially during contact sessions. Pragmatists, the majority, would prefer practical exercises such as coaching and demonstrations. Activists would like to participate in competitive work and role-play exercises, whereas Reflectors would rather prefer to work individually, listen to a formal lecture or watch a video. Theorists would like to solve complex problems and conduct research. Learner Profile A learner profile is a narrative description of the target population that sets forth assumptions made about individuals who will likely participate in the learning program (Jerling, 1999:37). Table 4 is a narrative of the learner profile that is most likely to enrol for a learning program on PSO in Africa. Table 3: Learner Profile Prerequisite Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes Other learner-related characteristics Previously learned Knowledge Grade 12 qualification. Must have completed basic training, individual specialised training, sub-unit and unit training, integrated training and a wide array of other general-purpose combat training. Experience Only officers and warrant offices were included in the survey. Very diverse, i.e. includes all racial groupings, both male and female. Respondents are married and single. The average age of the learner group is between the 25 and 50 years. All respondents are from the military, coming from different service components within the SA Army. The majority of members (82%) are from the teeth arms of the SA Army and includes infantry, armour, artillery, air defence artillery, and intelligence and field engineers. Ranks are from Warrant Officer to Lt Col. Approximately 63% are in the rank group Captain to Major and have between 1 and 30 years experience. The majority of members (77%) have between 6 and 15 years experience in the military. Previously learned Skills Management Capability. The ability to use various types of weapons and other war fighting equipment. Speak English, Afrikaans and various African languages. 48% of the members that participated in the survey prefer English as the common language. Aptitude General supervision and appraisal. Authorising work of others. Technical advice and guidance. Responsibility towards budget. Responsible for equipment. Responsible for buildings. Previously learned Attitudes All are South Africans coming from diverse backgrounds. The largest percentage, 51%, views the military culture as the most important, whereas 28.9% prefer national culture. Positive towards being a military practitioner. Attitude towards learning is Pragmatist 43%, Activist 23.3%, Theorist 21.1% and Reflector 12%. Attitude Pragmatists, the majority, would prefer practical exercises such as coaching and demonstrations. Activists would like to participate in competitive work and role-play exercises, whereas Theorists would like to solve complex problems and conduct research. Reflectors would rather prefer to work individually, listen to a formal lecture or watch a video. SUMMARY This section dealt with the job description of the peacekeeper and target group analysis of the group surveyed. The purpose of the job analysis was to establish generic job performance. Emphasis was placed on a description of the target group and establishing the learner profile. The technique used to collect information for the target group analysis was an attitudinal survey. This resulted in a detailed description of the learner group expected to attend a possible learning program on PSO in Africa. The next section uses the job description to determine training needs and formulate learning outcomes. section 3: THE formulation OF outcomes In the previous sections the situation, job performance and target group was analysed. It is now possible to design the proposed program to be in line with the outcomes stated in the anticipated qualification and unit standards. Aligning the learning program with the qualification or part of the qualification enables the learner to receive credits for the qualification. It will allow the providers of training to align the delivery of their programs in a manner that will facilitate the learning result to transfer into a national qualification or part thereof. The qualification also addresses organisational needs. Alignment is necessary in order to comply with legislation and to train for impact. The generic job description of a peacekeeper, the information from the target group analysis, the learner profile, and the information from the literature review, translates into exit level outcomes and specific outcomes for the proposed Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa. EXIT LEVEL OUTCOMES (OVERALL OUTCOMES) On completion of this qualification, the learner will be able to: • Serve on UN peacekeeping missions in various positions such as military observer, liaison officer, and CIMIC officer. • Assess peacekeeping operations from an international perspective in order to apply lessons learnt in the African peacekeeping environment. • Appraise the elements of a geo-political study in order to compile a geo-political profile of a given country in Africa for peacekeeping purposes. • Collect, analyse, organise and critically assess any information relevant to peacekeeping missions in Africa and to make a sound judgement of any given situation. • Contribute to the CIMIC process by working in close collaboration with local authorities, UN peacekeeping force, and other agencies in ensuring safe access to vulnerable populations of concern. SPECIFIC OUTCOMES Serving on a UN Peacekeeping Mission: • Assess the UN system and the mission environment. • Assess the history of UN peacekeeping operations during the Cold War: 1945 to 1987. • Assess the history of UN peacekeeping operations following the Cold War: 1988 to 1997. • Assess peacekeeping in the former Yugoslavia from the Dayton Accord to Kosovo. • Assess global terrorism. • Assess international humanitarian law and the law of armed conflict. • Assess security for UN peacekeepers. • Assess the principles for the conduct of PSO. • Assess peacekeeping and international conflict resolution. • Appraise UN civilian police: restoring civil order following hostilities. • Assess the conduct of humanitarian relief operations and principles of intervention and management. • Assess operational logistical support of UN peacekeeping missions. • Assess the provision of troops and contingent-owned equipment (COE) and the method for reimbursement. • Assess UN military observers: methods and techniques for serving on a UN observer mission. • Assess mine action: humanitarian impact, technical aspects and global initiatives. • Appraise commanding United Nations peacekeeping operations. Peacekeeping Operations from an International Perspective: • Assess the strategic background to peace support operations. • Assess the international environment. • Assess the changing nature of peace support operations: A UK perspective. • Estimate planning for peace support operations from a UK perspective. • Value the general approach to peace operations (Netherlands). • Compare the military approach to peace operations from a Netherlands perspective. • Judge political decision-making and military command and control from a Netherlands perspective. • Appraise support in a multinational framework from a Netherlands perspective. • Value MOOTW operational tasks from a Netherlands perspective. • Assess MOOTW from A USA perspective. • Value the Principles of MOOTW, a USA perspective. • Compare the types of MOOTW from a USA perspective. • Estimate planning for MOOTW, a USA perspective. • Judge hostage survival from a Canadian perspective. • Appraise the operations centre from a Canadian perspective. • Assess negotiation and mediation from a Canadian perspective. • Value media awareness from a Canadian perspective. • Value peace partners from a Canadian perspective. • Assess preventive medicine (Canada). • Assess stress management. Geo-politics and Security studies: • Appraise the concepts influencing Geo-Politics. • Assess the elements of a Geo-Political study. • Argue international politics. • Assess Africa studies. • Compare geo-politics: South Africa and SADC. • Analyse global conflict. • Assess international, regional and national security. • Support world health issues. • Value security-sector reform (SSR) in developing countries. Peacekeeping Missions in Africa: • Assess case studies in the African environment. • Appraise the context in which PSO’s take place. • Discuss the strategic context and concepts of PSO in Africa. • Appraise the fundamentals, principles and campaigning wrt PSO in the African context. • Assess the tasks and techniques on PSO in the Africa context. • Compare the components in PSO. • Appraise the PSO environment. • Estimate disarmament, demobilisation, and reintegration (DDR). • Assess conflict analysis for project management. • Estimate demobilisation and reintegration of ex-combatants in post-war and transition countries. Civil-Military Coordination (CIMIC): • Judge CIMIC relations principles. • Appraise CIMIC in context. • Assess CIMIC practices and processes. • Value the military on humanitarian operations. • Judge CIMIC individual skills. • Set-up CIMIC exercises. • Select options for aid in conflict. CURRICULUM DESIGN FRAMEWORK Outcomes identified above translate into the following possible learning programs: Figure 5: Curriculum framework[1] Curriculum: National Diploma in PSO in Africa Learning Program 1: UN Peacekeeping (UNITAR POCI) Learning Program 2: International Peacekeeping Learning Program 3: Geo-Politics and Security Studies Learning Program 4: PSO in Africa Learning Program 5: CIMIC Source: De Montfort, PJ. 2007. SUMMARY This section formulated outcomes for the proposed Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa. The training need identified by configuration with the job description and the literature review translated into exit level outcomes and specific outcomes for the proposed learning programs. Figure 6: Selection of delivery method according to nature of the outcome Figure 6: Curriculum flow chart Inspect the Outcome Behavioural Domain? Psychomotor Affective Cognitive • Work Group • Intact Work Group • Individualised • One-to-one Level? Low High Level? High Low Any type of delivery method • Group discussion • Role-play • Case study • Individualised (e-learning) • Lesson • Lecture • Demonstration • Computer based Any type of delivery method Source: Van Niekerk 1991: 75 The Target Group The learner is a further factor to consider in the selection of method(Van Dyk et al 2001:248). Aspects such as age, grade level, socio-economic status, previous experience, what specific knowledge and skills they have, learning styles and preferences need to be considered (Newby et al., 2000:118). The influence of the learner group (level of maturity and previous learning experience) is accounted in figure 7. Figure 7: Selection of delivery method according to target group Inspect the Target Group Level of Adulthood? Experience of delivery methods? DEMOCRATIC • Group discussion • Role-play • Case study • Individualised (e-learning) • Distance learning OUTOCRATIC • Lesson • Lecture • Programmed Instruction High Low Yes No Source: Van Niekerk 1991:76 Content The ability of the learner to master the content is another factor that has an influence on the selection of the delivery method (van Niekerk, 1991: 74). According to Tracy (1984: 246) the difficulty level of the programme content might influence the selection of a learning strategy. The diagram in Figure 10 indicates this influence. Figure 8: Selection of delivery method according to content Inspect the Content Learner Intellectual Ability? Low LEARNER-CENTRED • Self-study • Individualised (e-learning) • Distance Learning High Average GROUP-CENTRED • Small group • Intact Work Group • Group discussion • Brain storming • Case study INSTRUCTOR-CENTRED • Lesson • Lecture • Tutorial • Programmed Instruction • One-on-One Source: Van Niekerk 1991: 77 Summary The overall educational approach of distance education is co-operative teaching. This concept could be applied in training for soldiers in the SANDF. The nature of the programme lies in the need to instruct through various distance education delivery modes, i.e. correspondence courses, contact sessions and digital education (Langholtz et al., 2003:6). Correspondence instruction (distance education) programmes are planned based on separation of the learning facilitator and the learners. There is often a wide geographical distance between them. Learning facilitators therefore will not have face-to-face contact with learners on a daily basis (Newby et al. 2000:210-214). The learner has the advantage of working at his/her own pace to acquire knowledge and skills. It involves reading text, undertaking learning activities and sometimes conducting research. The learning material is distributed through the mail or electronically or by means of contact session (Jerling, 1999:150). This does not mean that there is no guidance and support to the learner. The need for communication in order to ensure that the learner is on the right track in achieving the expected learning outcomes remains. Regular contact sessions will be held to assess learners in their progress towards programme outcomes. As the learning facilitator and the learner both share responsibility for learning there is a need to follow a participatory and adult learning approach (SANDF COLET, 2004: 6) and (De Beer and Mostert, 2005:5). Correspondence instruction will base on co-operative education involving small heterogeneous groups of learners working together to learn collaboratively while working towards a common academic goal (Newby et al., 2000:92). In this method, learners apply communication and critical-thinking skills to solve problems or to engage in meaningful work together. Students learn from each other when they work on projects as a team (Slavin, 1990: 52-54). It is a teaching and learning strategy that integrates the learner’s academic studies with experiential learning. This is done in partnership with the relevant occupational field based on a mixture of explicit (conceptual and factual) knowledge and tacit knowledge gained through experience and simulation, and by going through the actual process that has to be learned (UNISA, 2003:4). Experiential learning may be facilitated by means of practical projects and/or portfolios aimed at guiding the learner to apply the academic knowledge in a practical or simulated work situation (Langholtz et al, 2003:10). Furthermore, an outcomes-based approach is followed that underpinning the systems approach to training. Each component of the programme is designated, monitored, and adjusted to the level and pace of instruction as needed. Each learning outcome is established up front and each learner can turn on or off instruction as needed to achieve the desired outcome (Blank, 1982:6). De Munnik (1997:90) asks the question whether the concepts – outcomes-, standards-, and performance-based education are so different from what institutions have been doing in adult education. The main difference is a shift in emphasis on how the results of the activity are processed. Nature of outcomes and learning content Learning aids must be selected to meet and suit the outcomes and the learning content. The outcomes and learning content of this programme consist out of a combination of cognitive, psychomotor, and affective skills (De Munnik p.265). Distance education programmes are not designed for hands-on skills, or for field exercises. It is recognised that certain psychomotor skills can only be taught under close, direct supervision (Langholtz et al., 2003:7). Therefore, learning aids that can be used successfully in all the domains of learning will receive preference. Suggested Multi-media Package. The following is a proposed package for use during PSO education. Learners will receive following: • Outcomes. • Learning content in the form of printed material and computer discs. • Learner workbook containing tests related to each objective. • Example of a portfolio of learning (POL). • End-of-course examination (provided with learning programme 1). • Answer Sheet for end-of-course examination (summative). • Return envelope for end-of-course examination. • Internet support (e-learning). • Facilitators notes. These notes deal with the content in the learning package and give guidance to the facilitator concerning the achievement of the outcomes. These notes will refer to available learning aids. Activities Activities selected to accompany the learning must enable the learners to meet the outcome of a lesson and must hold the learners interest. It may be necessary to achieve more than one activity for each major lesson, depending on the learning outcome. However, during distance education the learner and the facilitator is separated and activities will be reserved for contact sessions. In this, section a basic idea of activities that could be used to enable the meet the learning outcomes is formulated. These activities will be planned in more detail during the development of programme material (SANDF COLET, 2004:20). Table 9 gives a scheme of activities that could possible be used during these programmes. Table 3: Informal learner activities in outcomes-based assessment Example Description Advantage Group projects A number of learners work on a task together. This might include discussion and group presentation. You can assess learners’ abilities to work as a team and to complete the task competently. Oral presentation Learners present work orally to the learning facilitator/group. Allows learners’ abilities to tell us what they know. Assess both the work completed and the ability to communicate what is learnt. Written assignment This could be an essay or other piece of writing that involves discussion and presentation. Allows for the demonstration of learners’ thinking (cognitive), writing and communication skills. Practical assignment These could be models and posters. Demonstrates how learners understand certain concepts and how they apply it. Peer-assessment Learners give their own opinions of the group’s performance, compared to the outcomes they should achieve. Enhances learner participation. Portfolio assessment Files or folders that contain samples of the learners’ work done over time. Allows for the assessment of learners over a period of time. Could be used for recognition of prior learning. Self assessment Learners are asked to assess themselves against the given outcomes. Learners develop an understanding of the learning outcomes. Source: SANDF COLET, 2004:20 SUMMARY Outcomes-based training programmes are implemented widely. To ensure success of distance education programmes, a requirement is adult learners who participate actively in the learning process. The training service providers need to provide active guidance and support. There are various learning theories that must be considered for application to ETD. It is important to implement learner activities that will encourage “whole brain thinkers”. This section proposed a delivery method, decided on training materials and listed some activities that could be used during programme delivery. The next section addresses the issue of assessment. ASSESSMENT METHODS SAQA (2001:27) describe different assessment methods in table 4. Table 4: Assessment methods Assessment method Advantages Disadvantages Role-play Assessment of attitudes and interpersonal skills through role-play • An excellent way to get in focus with the affective (feelings) domains of learning. • If well managed and structured, it can be satisfying and enjoyable for participants. • Some participants may feel intimidated by having to act out a role-play. • A considerable number of sources (such as time for preparation and play) may be required. • The evidence obtained might be unpredictable. Written case study A detailed description of a specific situation that may be genuine or fictional, for example an emergency situation in the workplace that a learner needs to handle according to policies and guidelines. • A good method for providing evidence of a learner’s knowledge on procedures, as well as his/her ability to use higher cognitive thinking skills (such as problem-solving and decision-making). • A good method to assess all three types of competence (foundational, practical and reflexive). • Learners may react differently in the real-life situation if the case study was fictional. • It is time-consuming to design an effective case study. The assessor might not get good evidence if the case study was not properly planned, resulting into a pleasant pastime without any training value. Written test/examination A selection of written/typed questions, requiring a written response. • Useful to provide evidence on the cognitive domain of learning. • The assessment process is standardised. All learners write the same test or examination. • Not suitable for assessing the affective (feelings) and psychomotor (skills) domains of learning. • A great amount of time and effort is required to draw up proper questions and a memorandum (model answer) for a test or examination. Group project A project is assigned to a group of learners who work together to achieve the specific outcomes. This might involve oral presentation and discussion. • The learners’ abilities to work as a team and to complete the task competently are assessed. • It allows for thorough research and investigation. • Higher cognitive thinking skills of learners are stimulated (such as critical and creative thinking). • It may be difficult to determine whether it is the learner’s own work (authenticity). • Not all group members make equal contributions. • It is difficult to assess individuals’ work. Written assignment This could be a written assignment that could be an essay or other piece of writing that involves discussion and presentation. It could also be a practical assignment that involves the making of posters and models. It may be assigned to a group of learners or to individuals. • It allows for thorough research and investigation. • Higher cognitive thinking skills of learners are stimulated (such as critical and creative thinking). • Learners read the material assigned as it appears in the original writing, and do not receive it second-hand. • The assessor must find ways to ensure that the assignment is the learner’s own work. • The assessor may need more evidence (practical demonstration). • Assignment assessment is very time-consuming. Self assessment A learner assesses his/her own level of competence. • The learner develops a better understanding of the outcomes that have to be achieved. • It is a valuable way to find out what a learner thinks about his/her level of performance. • It may not be an accurate form of assessment. • Some learners may underestimate their level of competencies while others have unrealistically high opinions of their abilities. Peer assessment Learners give their own opinions of the groups’ performance, compared to the outcomes they should achieve. • Learner participation is enhanced. • It confirms competence applied in the work environment. • Useful for group work to assess competencies such as “working in a team.” • It may not be a true reflection of the learner’s competence due to factors such as favouritism or prejudice. • The learner might feel threatened by the situation. Portfolio of evidence (A file or folder that contains samples of the learner’s work done over time. • It allows for the assessment of a learner over a period. • It could be use for recognition of prior learning. • It may not be an accurate form of assessment. • The assessor must find ways to ensure that the assignment is the learner’s own work. • The assessor may need more evidence (practical demonstration) and clarification. Source: AWL 2001:6-14 Part of the ETD quality assurance, is the management of evaluation and assessment. One of the elements in the process is the management of assessment which involves (Van der Spuy et al., 2005:4): • The preparatory phase for planning and designing of the assessment. • The learner assessment process: § Demonstrate understanding of outcomes-based assessment; § Prepare for assessments; § Conduct assessments; § Provide feedback on assessment, and § Review assessments. • Re-assessment procedure. • Appeal procedure. • Moderation process. • Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) process. • Withdrawal and suspension process. Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) RPL is defined in the SAQA Act in terms National Standards Bodies (NSB) (Government Gazette, No 18787 of 28 March 1998),: RPL means the comparison of the previous learning and experience of a learner obtained against the learning outcomes required for a specific qualification, and the acceptance for purposes of qualification of that which meets the requirements. The principle of RPL is broadly stated as the giving of credit to what learners already know and can do, regardless of whether this learning was achieved formally or informally. The process of recognition of prior achievements is about: Identifying what the learner knows and can do and matching the learner’s skill, knowledge and experience to specific unit standards and the associated criteria, assessing the learner against the standards, crediting the learner for skills, knowledge and experience built up through formal/informal/non-formal learning that occurred in the past. There is no fundamental difference in the assessment of previously acquired skills and knowledge and the assessment in current learning program. The learner seeking credits still has to comply with all the requirements stated in the unit standard. The only difference is that the learner will not need to go through a formal learning program. Awarding a credential is not dependent on the time spent in a learning program, but on the learner’s readiness to demonstrate competence. A learner that feels ready can present him/herself for assessment and/or submit the necessary evidence as required by the learning outcomes and the assessment criteria, as stated in the registered unit standard. It is furthermore the learner’s responsibility to provide evidence of competence in accordance with the relevant outcomes. Although RPL is a “special assessment” it must be incorporated in the existing assessment processes (Van der Spuy et al., 2005:6-7) and (Jerling, 1999:219). Assessment should be conducted in accordance with an assessment plan. It is a participatory approach and the assessor is there to help the learner to produce evidence that proves that he/she is competent. Proper records should be kept. This forms part of quality assurance. Feedback should be provided to the learner regarding his/her competence level. The learner has the right to be re-assessed or to appeal against the assessment result. CONLUSION Although the research results have been tested with external assessors, the UNITAR POCI programmes are not accredited yet with the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA). At this point in time it is only “recorded” with a SASETA. However, our account of the results of the study according to the research objectives stated, should benefit the accreditation process. The survey results indicate that there is training gap, and confirm that there is a need amongst SA Army officers in the SANDF to participate in a tertiary program on PSO in Africa. It also answers the question on the best method to design such learning program. Section 2 presented a job description and target group analysis. Section 3 aligned the generic job requirement of a peacekeeper with the training needs. The rest of the research paper described the development of ETD opportunities for SA militia which is so important to enhance peacekeeping in our region.