INDUCTION FOR PART TIME LECTURERS (18)

THEME ELEVEN: THE ART OF QUESTIONING

1. INTRODUCTION

Most lecturers know that it is good teaching practice to pause during typical lectures and pose questions. This helps, inter alia, to ascertain the students’ concept of the module and to ensure their participation in the activity. Thus, a question is posed, followed by a volunteer to react to the question. If there is no reaction from the class, a student who is known by name and who will deliver good work and not feel embarrassed, would usually be selected to answer the question. As soon as that person is selected to answer the question, the other students will stop thinking about a possible answer, and will listen to the student who has been selected. In this way, most of the students will be deprived of the opportunity to think about the questions and experience the results of their own thoughts and actions. By always selecting the quickest, the cleverest and the most forthcoming student, others would be deprived of that to which they are entitled – an equal opportunity to learn (Bitzer and Venter, 2002).

UNIT ONE: WHY ARE QUESTIONS POSED TO STUDENTS IMPORTANT?

 A student’s grade or level of understanding of a concept is determined by means of questions.
 By posing questions, the student becomes involved (active learning), the student’s attention remains focused and the student is afforded the opportunity to achieve.
 The student’s knowledge and understanding is tested and it can be determined to what extent the information can be used in reasoning, and for the solution to problems.
 Key facts from a previous lesson can be revised, reformulated and/or summarised by the use of questions.
 Questions can initiate a discussion, stimulate creative thinking and/or invite ideas to which students can react.
 By means of the correct kinds of questions, discipline can be largely promoted.
(It stands to reason that a single question can lead to achievement of more than one learning outcome).

3. WHAT KIND OF QUESTIONS SHOULD BE ASKED?

Questions posed to students in the class can be grouped on the basis of the expected answers. There are basically two groups:
 Closed and open questions and
 Divergent and convergent questions (Cf. infra, point no 4).

3.1 Closed and Open Questions

A CLOSED QUESTION structures the answer (response) from the student and can be answered in one word (often “yes” or “no”) or in a short phrase.
AN OPEN QUESTION affords the student the opportunity to structure his own answer and usually invites more ideas or information.

EXAMPLE

You discuss the problem of plagiarism in the class and the ethical aspects related to work. You Sketch the following situation to the students:
Someone who takes you into their confidence informs you that he has committed
plagiarism.

Possible questions:

Will you inform your promoter of this? (Closed question. You expect only “Yes” or “No”).
Will you personally inform the promoter or do so anonymously? (This is also a closed question, because the student must choose one out of 2)
(3) How will you inform the promoter? (This is an open question, because the student can decide for himself how he will handle this.)

3.2 Convergent and divergent questions

The difference between CONVERGENT AND DIVERGENT questions is whether it would be expected of students to provide a few acceptably “correct” answers (convergent questions) or whether the students would also have the freeness of speech to provide a few possible solutions of which there would be an acceptable variety of answers (divergent questions).
In the case of convergent questions it would be expected of the student to repeat “conventional words of wisdom”. Divergent questions require new, creative perceptions.estions


EXAMPLE

In what ways do welfare organisations endeavour (according to your
Textbook) to solve the problem of poverty?
Convergent question – the acceptable answer is determined in the textbook.)
In what ways can the poverty problem in the country be solved?
Divergent question – a wide range of acceptable answers are possible.)

Please note that question 1 is an open as well as a convergent question. Convergent questions can also be closed questions; divergent questions must always be open questions. Some answers to divergent questions may be more acceptable than others in terms of logical agreement, synthesis or relevant data, solutions to the main aspects of a problem. The most important advantage in the posing of divergent questions is that they require that students have to think over a question or a problem, and not have to furnish the “correct” answer or the answer that the lecturer wishes to hear. Students are normally more than willing to answer divergent questions, because they have less chance of giving an “incorrect” answer. Divergent questions, in most instances, require a high level of thinking ability. By answering these questions, it is not only the memory that has to be relied upon. (Unless the student had already been exposed to answering the question) (Venter, 2001).

4. AT WHAT LEVEL SHOULD QUESTIONS BE POSED?

Questions should only be used in the class to develop certain thinking process skills in students. There are various theories on the levels of cognitive activities. For example, Benjamin Bloom and other educationalists developed taxonomy of education objectives whereby thinking abilities at lower and higher levels could be classified. The following are the levels of taxonomy, a short explanation of each level and examples of questions which could be expected of students in order to use their thinking abilities at each level.




EVALUATION
SYNETHESIS
ANALYSIS
APPLICATION
UNDERSTANDING
KNOWLEDGE

Adapted from University Free State Lecture Orientation (2001).
It is now very important for the new part time lecturer to compare the following implementation of questioning to that of Bloom. (Cf.supra, pp…)
1. Knowledge (The recalling of memorized material, for example, definitions, concepts, principles, formula)
(a) What is the definition of a verb?
(b) What is involved in the law of offer and demand?
(c) Name the stages of cell dividing.

2. Comprehension (Comprehension of the meaning of memorized material, which is normally demonstrated by explaining something in the person’s own words, or quoting examples.)

(a) Name a few words usually used as adjectives.
(b) What is the meaning of the graph on page 13?
(c) Explain the workings of the digestive system.

3 Application (The use of information in a new context to solve a problem, to answer a question or to execute the next task. The information used may include laws, principles, formula, theories, concepts or procedures.)

4 Analysis (The dividing up of information into sub-sections and the explanation of the relations between the sub-sections.)

(a) What are the main points that E.B. White uses to develop the theme of his essay?
(b) Which factors in the South African economy influence the current price of steel?
(c) What is the relationship between probabilities and statistical analysis?

5 Synthesis (The combination of parts to form a new whole, pattern or structure).
(a) How do the style of writing and the theme of a given essay relate?
(b) How do long term and short term interest rates which consumers pay on loans compare with the general interest rate?
(c) How would you go about conducting an experiment with regard to calorie intake?

6 Evaluation (The use of determined criteria which are set up by the student or the lecturer in order to reach a reasonable conclusion).
(a) In what way does Hemmingway use adjectives effectively to emphasize the theme in The Old Man and the Sea?
(b) What role does VAT play in curbing inflation?
(c) How well does the Stillman Diet Plan respond to the criteria of an ideal weight reduction?

Instead of referring to a determined level of taxonomy, we refer to LOW LEVEL AND HIGH LEVEL questions. Low level questions are based on knowledge, concept and straight forward application levels of the taxonomy. High level questions are those which require a complex application (e.g. analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

. Normally, questions on low levels are suitable for:
• The evaluation of preparation and understanding of students;
• the diagnosis of the strong and weak points of students and
• the revising and/summarizing of the subject material content.
Questions at the high level of taxonomy are usually suitable for:
• Encouraging students to think more deeply and critically;
• problem solving;
• encouraging discussions and
• stimulating students to research information themselves.

UNIT TWO: PREPARING QUESTIONS FOR PART TIME LEARNER DISCUSSIONS

Effective posing of questions in the classroom requires preparation. Although some lecturers may be skilled in the setting of unprepared questions, most lecturers may have experienced that such questions could pose problems with the wording, not be arranged in logical sequence and do not require students to use the necessary thought process skills. The following are a few steps and suggestions which could prove useful in the planning of questions:

1 Decide on a goal you wish to attain in the setting of questions. Your goal should be to help determine the nature (level) of questions you wish to set.
2 Select the module or unit material content on which you wish to set the questions. Select learning material that you regard as important and not as irrelevant. Students will study and learn according to the questions you have set. Do not misled by emphasizing less important module material (Bitzer and Venter, 2002).
3 Properly formulate your questions.
 Set questions which require an expansive response (answer) or, at least, a “content” answer. Avoid questions which can be answered by “yes” or “no”, unless you are going to follow them up with further questions to ensure how the students are reasoning.
 Formulate your questions in such a way that the students’ task is clear.
 Ensure that the questions are sufficiently flexible, so that the student does not have to guess. Avoid “guess-what-I’m-thinking” questions.
 Your questions should not include the answers. Avoid questions in which the response is implied if you really require an answer from the class. A question such as “Do you not all agree that the writer of the article exaggerates the dangers to support his point of view?” will not encourage students to react.
4 When you plan your questions, endeavour to predict the possible response from students. You can do this by taking the following into consideration:
 What typical misconception can lead to students providing incorrect answers?
 Have I set an open or closed question?
 What kind of response do I expect of the student: a definition? an example?, a solution?
 Will I accept the answer the way the student has formulated it, or do I expect it as it appears in the textbook or in my own terminology?
 What strategy will I use in the handling of incorrect answers?
 What will be my reaction if students do not answer?
The providing of the answers from the students will assist you in your planning, as you will be forced to establish whether your formulation was correct, or whether your questions were related to your goal, and if the questions were flexible enough to allow students to express their ideas in their own words.
5 Until such time as you have become skilled in the setting of questions in the classroom, you should write out the important questions in advance. Arrange your questions in logical order (from the specific to the more general, from a lower to a higher level, according to the content, etc.). A prepared list of questions would ensure that you set questions which relate to your goals and are representative of the important subject material (cf Bitzer and Venter, 2002).

UNIT THREE: HANDLING OF ANSWERS OF STUDENTS IN PART TIME LECTURES

An important aspect of interaction in the classroom is the manner in which the lecturer handles the answers of students. If a lecturer poses a question, the students either react, or pose a question or do not react at all. If the student reacts or poses a question, the lecturer can use of the following recommended question techniques:
 Encouraging remarks, analyses, adaptability and reference.
 If the student does not react, the lecturer can reformulate the question or pose another question to another student. Every technique is described hereunder.

1.Encouraging remarks
The lecturer should strengthen the responses to questions from students in a positive manner to encourage future participation. The lecturer can do this by making positive statements and using non-verbal communication. Examples of good non-verbal responses include: a smile, a wink, maintaining eye contact, while weak non-verbal responses include the following: looking at notes while the student is talking, looking at the blackboard or fidgeting with papers (cf. Bitzer and Venter, 2002).

The kinds of encouragement would be determined by:
 The correctness of the answer. If a student provides an answer which is deviant or incorrect, the lecturer can acknowledge the response but not spend too much time on this before he gives attention to the correct response.
 The number of times a student responds. Lecturers can possible encourage a student who has never responded in the class rather than one who often answers.
Warning: Alternate encouraging techniques by making use of verbal statements as well as non-verbal reactions. Try not to make too much use of encouragement in the classroom by being over-complimentary. Students will begin to question the seriousness of the encouragement if all responses are encouraged in like manner.

2. Analysis

Analyses are based on the answers given by students. The original answers from students may be superficial. The lecturer must use the question technique, namely analysis, to ensure that students examine their original suppositions. Such an examination is necessary to ensure that students become more involved in the critical analyses of their ideas as well as those of other students.
One can make use of analyses in various ways. They can be used to:
 Analyse the student’s contention, to make him aware of the underlying suppositions, or to justify or assess the contention.
 Assist students to deduce relationships. The lecturers can ask students to consider the implications of their contentions in order to compare principles.
 Allow students to prove their contentions and to expand on these by asking for more information.

3 Adaptability

When a student furnishes an answer which is not in line with the subject material, the lecturer can adapt this in order to encourage the student to bring his/her answer in line with the module material being handled. This technique is also used to introduce a new module.

4 Reference

When a student reacts to a question, the lecturer can ask another student to comment on the given answer. The aim of this technique is to encourage more students to participate. This technique can also be used to allow a student to correct the wrong answer given or to react to another student’s question.

5 Reformulation

This technique is used when a student furnishes an incorrect answer or does respond at all. Rather than tell the student that his/her answer is incorrect, or to refer the question to another student, the lecturer can test one of three techniques:

 The lecturer may try to reword the question for great clarity. The question could have been wrongly worded.
 The lecturer may provide more information to assist the students to furnish the correct answer.
 The lecturer may divide the question into more easily handled sub-sections.
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UNIT THREE: HANDLING OF QUESTIONS FROM STUDENTS IN CLASS

There are many ways in which lecturers can react to questions from students. All techniques, however, begin with these important steps:

1 Listen to the student’s question
Here you can actively apply your ability to listen.
If you have ensured that you understood the question, make sure that the other students have heard and understood the question (cf Bitzer and Venter, 2002) further strategies include the following:
2. Answer the question yourself
This technique is best if there is little contact time left. The disadvantage of this approach is that you are not encouraging student-to-student interaction.
3. .Refer the question to the class
This technique contributes to promoting student-student interaction and it decreases the students’ dependence on the lecturer as a source of information.
3 Endeavour to help the student to answer his own question
You can pass on information to the student by making reference to certain study material. This technique may also require that you pose an easier question or a related question to the student in order to stimulate his thinking process. The advantage of this technique, with reference to the question, is that the student is introduced to the process of searching for answers instead of only depending on the lecturer’s support. The danger of this is that the process could create an embarrassment or that he would feel threatened or reluctant to pose questions in the future. It is thus clear that this technique must be applied with humaneness.
5. Ask the student to remain after class to discuss the question
This technique is especially appropriate when a student has posed a complicated question which does not relate to the study material, and if it is clear that the student is the only person who has not understood certain facts. Even in the abovementioned situations, there are dangers associated with this technique. Students might become reluctant to pose questions in class. The lecturer may also be under the wrong impression that the particular student did not understand the facts, while a number of students might have also encountered the same problem.
6. Refer the student to a source where he/she could find the correct answer
7. Postpone the answer to the question to a more appropriate time and, if you do not know the answer to the question, make a note of the question and the name of the student; refer to the question at a more appropriate time. It does not matter which technique you make use of, you must, after the question has been answered, ensure that the answer has satisfied the student (cf. Bitzer and Venter, 2002).
8. Do not try to think up an answer
Admit that you cannot answer the question, and then make use of one of the following techniques which you regard as suitable:

 Ask if anyone in the class can answer the question. You must, however, determine whether the information is correct and is based on logical reasoning and reliable sources.
 Suggest how the information on the subject can be obtained and ask the students for suggestions on how the answer to the question can be researched.
 If possible, suggest a source from which students may obtain the information. It might be a written source, another lecturer, a student or a person outside the institution.
 Offer to find the answer and report back to the class. In such a case, ensure that you really do find the answer (cf Bitzer and Venter, 2002).

UNIT FOUR: THE LECTURER’S ATTITUDE WHEN SHE/HE LISTENS TO STUDENTS ANSWERS

An important aspect of atmosphere is “presence conduct” or what a lecturer does while a student is answering a question. In general, the lecturer should listen to the student, encourage him/her to continue, and focus the attention of the rest of the class on the student who is reacting to the question. This can be achieved in several ways:

 Maintain eye contact with the student who is answering the question. Some lecturers keep an eye on the rest of the students to ensure that they are listening.
 Use non-verbal signs to indicate your understanding, confusion or support, for example, the nod of the head, facial expression, gestures which indicate to the student to continue or to show the student that you are reflecting on the student’s answer (Venter,2001)
 Listen to the student:
Do not interrupt if you think that the student is giving an incorrect answer. Sometimes a student may realize that he is wrong. You may also misunderstand the student. Even if the student gives an incorrect answer, the other students may learn just as much from the incorrect answers as from the correct response. If you interrupt the student, you will not be creating an atmosphere conducive to encouraging participation. You are welcome to apply some of the following suggestions, with a view to actively listen:

 Wait for an opportunity or two after the student has finished answering the question to ensure that you heard everything and that the student does not have more to say.
 You can possibly reformulate the answer to ensure that you correctly understood the student’s answer. This technique, when wisely used, will reassure the student that you have listened.

 Use the student’s response as a starting point for a new question or to prove a supposition. This will once again prove that you listened.
 While you are listening to the student, you should try to establish whether you understand what he is saying. If not, ask for more information or a further explanation.
 Listen to the content of what the student is saying, and not only to the expected incoherent talk or key phrases.
 Fix your attention on the student and not on what you want to do next. (For example to pose a question or to end the lesson).

CONCLUSION
Proper posing of questions in the class involves a series of skills as you have probably gleaned from the foregoing information. With the necessary experience, setting of questions in a proper manner and at the right time is a powerful art/mechanism/technique to promote learning in students because the old and historic observation of Hamilton (in University of the Free State Lecture Orientetion ,2001) is still relevant in many ways: "The whole of teaching and learning is shot through with the art of questioning".